tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39190464042552131402024-03-25T08:57:51.254-05:00INDONESIA'S URBAN STUDIESForum for those who are concerned about the advancement of urban development in IndonesiaDeden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.comBlogger72125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-8337918284849730582022-12-30T20:37:00.001-05:002022-12-30T20:37:26.981-05:00Routledge Handbook of Urban Indonesia<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;">After more than two years in the making, my co-editor, Sonia Roitman of the University of Queensland, and I are thrilled to announce our new edited book, "Routledge Handbook of Urban Indonesia". </span><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;">We started this project at the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic when we did not know its magnitude, severity, and effects on our personal and professional activities. In these two years, the world has changed unimaginably and we have had to adapt to new ways of living and working. The project was delayed due to several problems experienced by those involved in the book. Many contributors and family members got sick and had to take over the significant caring responsibilities of family and friends. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKSiwDunppV2_2d461rwhTEq5_4OBfNBPwgv8SV_uEkJoD7KulvFAmReduwOQRkdZPQWltYxMu1lSvPUVTHr2lVwvZkUEXkeCKVH-XBa6_ZhjvpWS3Sf-82uCdf_eWMcHVViBcJLWmYnGWReImA-aShFSba5E783Xcdg54nCoLhFUHpeY0nAexvbyy/s3827/Book%20cover%20Urban%20Indonesia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3827" data-original-width="2973" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKSiwDunppV2_2d461rwhTEq5_4OBfNBPwgv8SV_uEkJoD7KulvFAmReduwOQRkdZPQWltYxMu1lSvPUVTHr2lVwvZkUEXkeCKVH-XBa6_ZhjvpWS3Sf-82uCdf_eWMcHVViBcJLWmYnGWReImA-aShFSba5E783Xcdg54nCoLhFUHpeY0nAexvbyy/w498-h640/Book%20cover%20Urban%20Indonesia.jpg" width="498" /></a></div><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;">The publication of this book is also the celebration of a collective effort from 64 contributors, including some established scholars, i.e., Christopher Silver, Ashok Das, Nicholas Phelps, and Tommy Firman and early career scholars from Indonesian universities and elsewhere. As the first book in English that compiles a variety of case studies of Indonesian cities, this book offers the opportunity for a deep exchange of ideas with researchers and practitioners working outside Indonesia and an expansion of conversations and debates about similarities and differences between Global North and South, and among the regions in the South.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;">"To the world of academic urbanists beyond Southeast Asia, Indonesia is known largely through studies of its metropolitan center, Jakarta, and surrounding desakota landscapes. Roitman and Rukmana have assembled a long-overdue volume that begins to do justice to this urban diversity. They bring critical postcolonial planning perspectives to bear on 19 cities, including several that have never featured in the Anglophone urban studies literature and remained "off the map" of urban planning discussions. Even more significantly, this skillfully-curated handbook compels and enables us to revisit planning theory and practice from urbanizing Indonesia."</span><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;"><i>- Tim Bunnell, National University of Singapore</i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: var(--primary-text); font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.9375rem;"><i><br /></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><a class="x1i10hfl xjbqb8w x6umtig x1b1mbwd xaqea5y xav7gou x9f619 x1ypdohk xt0psk2 xe8uvvx xdj266r x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r xexx8yu x4uap5 x18d9i69 xkhd6sd x16tdsg8 x1hl2dhg xggy1nq x1a2a7pz xt0b8zv x1fey0fg" href="https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Handbook-of-Urban-Indonesia/Roitman-Rukmana/p/book/9780367762797?fbclid=IwAR1HLzfC9vC3BWCiQ0gTW7r5K3DXRKSTr8NCdQe0uIGw53GdCTx9BBAGtoE#" rel="nofollow noopener" role="link" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-color: white; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline; font-family: "Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; list-style: none; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; touch-action: manipulation;" tabindex="0" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Handbook-of-Urban-Indonesia/Roitman-Rukmana/p/book/9780367762797#</i></span></a></div>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-89629699441543048992021-04-04T14:00:00.014-05:002021-04-04T15:24:08.908-05:00Income Inequality and Socioeconomic Segregation in Jakarta<blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;"><div style="text-align: left;"><b><i>I am pleased to share here my newest publication with my coauthor, Dinar Ramadhani, which is a chapter of the open access book titled "Urban Socio-Economic Segregation and Income Inequality: A Global Perspective" edited by Maarten van Ham, Tjit Tammaru, Ruta Ubareviciene, and Heleen Janssen. The chapter can be downloaded without charge at <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-64569-4_7" target="_blank">this link.</a> The book is published by Springer and funded by the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Program and TU Delft. </i></b><span style="font-family: inherit;">(To cite this article: </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">Rukmana, D., & Ramadhani, D. (2021). Income Inequality and Socioeconomic Segregation in Jakarta. </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">Urban Socio-Economic Segregation and Income Inequality</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">, 135-152)</span></div></blockquote><p><br /></p><p><b>Abstract: </b>Socioeconomic segregation has become a common phenomenon, both in
the Global North and Global South, and highly relates to income inequality. The
merging of these two notions affects the geography of residential areas which are
based on the socio-occupational composition. This chapter focuses on the Jakarta
Metropolitan Area (JMA). Not only is Jakarta the largest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia, it is also one of the most dynamic. Batavia, the colonial capital of the
former Dutch East Indies in the first half of the twentieth century, was a small
urban area of approximately 150,000 residents. In the second half of the century,
Batavia became Jakarta, a megacity of 31 million people and the capital of independent Indonesia was beset with most of the same urban problems experienced
in twenty-first-century Southeast Asia, including poverty, income inequality, and
socioeconomic segregation. This study aims to identify the correlation among income
inequality, socioeconomic segregation, and other institutional and contextual factors
which caused residential segregation in JMA. The analysis consists of two stages.
First, we examine income inequality measured by the Gini Index as well as the occupational structure based on the International Standard Classification of Occupations
(ISCO). Second, we investigate residential segregation by using the Dissimilarity
Index as a result of socioeconomic intermixing in residential areas. The data in this
study comes from multiple sources including Indonesia’s Central Bureau of Statistics, Indonesia’s National Socio-economic Survey (Susenas), Indonesia’s Economic
Census, Jakarta’s Regional Bureau of Statistics, and policies related to the housing
system and investment in the JMA. This study also produces maps of socioeconomic
segregation patterns from several sources including Jakarta’s Geospatial Information
Centre, Jakarta’s Spatial Plan Information System, and the Indonesian Poverty Map
by the SMERU Research Institute.</p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Introduction </h4><p>Socioeconomic segregation has become a common phenomenon, both in the Global
North and the Global South, and is strongly related to income inequality. The residential geography of income inequality represents where different income groups live,
but also affects an individual’s spatial opportunity structures. This study will focus
on residential segregation in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. Not only is Jakarta
the largest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia, it is also one of the most dynamic.
Batavia, which used to be the colonial capital of the Dutch East Indies in the first half
of the twentieth century was a small urban area of approximately 150,000 residents.
In the second half of the twentieth century, Batavia became Jakarta, a megacity of
31 million people and the capital of independent Indonesia was beset with most of
the same urban problems experienced in twenty-first-century Southeast Asia. </p><p>The modern city of Jakarta was envisioned by President Soekarno in the early
1960s. He used the 1962 Asian Games to modernize Jakarta by building the national
monument of Monas, government and parliament buildings, shopping plazas, the
national stadium, and hotels. The New Order regime continued such development
while Indonesia enjoyed steady economic growth during the 1980s and 1990s. The
boom of the property sector through foreign and domestic investments transformed
Jakarta as it gained the status as a global city. Jakarta has been the powerhouse of
Indonesia’s economy since the colonial era due to its high concentration of skilled
labor and entrepreneurs and Jakarta’s dominance in the financial and business sector
(Firman 2008; Salim and Kombaitan 2009). Jakarta is also the most attractive area for
domestic and foreign investment in Indonesia. Jakarta’s contribution to Indonesia’s
GDP increased from 14.9% in 2000 to 16.7% in 2010 and 17.5% in 2016. </p><p>Despite robust development and economic growth, Jakarta remains a place of
poverty. The contrast between rich and poor is highly pronounced in many parts
of the city (Prasetyanti 2015; Salim et al. 2019). Many modern towers in Jakarta
are surrounded by kampungs, which are unplanned, incrementally developed areas
with small plots of land and low-quality building structures and materials and are
often associated with slums (Winarso 2010). Most of the inhabitants of kampungs
are low-income residents. </p><p>This chapter explores income inequality and residential segregation between
socioeconomic groups in Jakarta, and the institutional and contextual factors that
cause residential segregation in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. The analysis
consists of two stages. First, we examine income inequality measured by the Gini
Index as well as the occupational structure based on the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). Second, we investigate residential segregation
by using the Location Quotients (LQs) and the Dissimilarity Index as a result of
socioeconomic intermixing in residential areas.</p><p>This chapter uses data from multiple sources including Indonesia’s Central Bureau
of Statistics, the National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas), the National Labor
Force Survey (Sakernas), and the Jakarta’s Regional Bureau of Statistics, as well
as policies related to the housing system and investment in the metropolitan region
of Jakarta. The study will also create maps representing socioeconomic segregation patterns and the data will be obtained from several sources including Jakarta’s
Geospatial Information Centre, Jakarta’s Spatial Plan Information System, and the
Indonesian Poverty Map by the SMERU Research Institute.</p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Jakarta: The Core, Inner Peripheries and Outer
Peripheries </h4><p>Jakarta is the capital of Indonesia and the largest city in Southeast Asia. The core of the
metropolitan region of Jakarta is called Daerah Khusus Ibukota (DKI) or the Special
Capital Region of Jakarta. DKI Jakarta has provincial government level status and
covers a total area of 664 square kilometers. DKI Jakarta consists of five municipalities (West Jakarta City, East Jakarta City, Central Jakarta City, North Jakarta City, and
South Jakarta City) and 42 districts (kecamatan). The metropolitan region of Jakarta
is popularly known as Jabodetabek, taken from the initial letters of the administrative units of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi. Jabodetabek consists
of the core, inner peripheries, and outer peripheries. The inner peripheries of the
metropolitan region of Jakarta include four municipalities (City of Tangerang, City
of South Tangerang, City of Depok, City of Bekasi), whereas the outer peripheries
of Jabodetabek include the City of Bogor, Tangerang Regency, and Bekasi Regency.
The peripheries of Jabodetabek are within the jurisdiction of two provinces. The City
of Bogor, City of Depok, City of Bekasi, and Bekasi Regency are within the jurisdiction of West Java Province, whereas Tangerang City, City of South Tangerang,
and Tangerang Regency are within the jurisdiction of Banten Province as shown
in Fig. 7.1. The metropolitan region of Jakarta covers a total area of 6,392 square
kilometers. The four municipalities within the inner peripheries of Jabodetabek are
founded in the 1990s and 2000s. Tangerang City, City of Bekasi, City of Depok,
and City of South Tangerang were founded in 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2008, respectively. Depok City seceded from Bogor Regency and Bekasi City was part of Bekasi
Regency. Meanwhile, Tangerang City and City of South Tangerang seceded from
Tangerang Regency. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHZd9B7X8sDbRwzqi_LrTK_WEJc4CkrrzYXs-hSmLusdsvfCA1ugOuKqyRok3VC3jtmaS5M8Bi1SerOxqcPHR09S3d7P9dONlphuqplqyvUBXZ837i2l65vUbCjKIznPcaQokqE9nxELg/s2048/Figure+1+200+dpi.tif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1583" data-original-width="2048" height="309" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHZd9B7X8sDbRwzqi_LrTK_WEJc4CkrrzYXs-hSmLusdsvfCA1ugOuKqyRok3VC3jtmaS5M8Bi1SerOxqcPHR09S3d7P9dONlphuqplqyvUBXZ837i2l65vUbCjKIznPcaQokqE9nxELg/w400-h309/Figure+1+200+dpi.tif" width="400" /></a></div><br /><p>The population of Jakarta was about 115,000 in 1900, and increased to 544,823
in 1940. After Independence, Jakarta’s population increased by nearly three times
to 1.43 million in 1950. It increased to 2.91 million in 1960 and 4.47 million in
1970. Table 7.1 shows the population of the metropolitan region of Jakarta including
Jakarta, the inner and outer peripheries of Jakarta, from 1990 to 2010 and 2015. All
data come from the population censuses, except the population data of 2015 from
the intercensal survey of Indonesia (SUPAS). The population of the metropolitan region of Jakarta increased from 17.14 million in 1990, to 20.63 million in 2000,
to 28.01 million in 2010, and to 31.62 million in 2015. In 2015, the metropolitan
region of Jakarta accounted for 12.39% of Indonesia’s total population, while this
population resides in less than 0.3% of Indonesia’s total land area. The proportions of
Jabodetabek’s population to the total Indonesia’s population have steadily increased
from 9.6% in 1990, to 10.0% in 2000, and to 11.8% in 2010. </p><p>This chapter focuses on the core and the inner peripheries of the metropolitan
region of Jakarta or Jabodetabek including all five municipalities within DKI Jakarta
and Tangerang City, South Tangerang City, Depok City, and Bekasi City as the study
area. The selection of the core and the inner peripheries of Jabodetabek refers to
the functional urban areas (FUAs) as defined by the OECD. As shown in Fig. 7.1,
Tangerang City, South Tangerang City, Depok City, and Bekasi City are neighboring
areas of DKI Jakarta to the West, South, and East, respectively. The population
density of these municipalities in 2015 is 11,531 inhabitants per square kilometers.
The population density of each municipality in the inner peripheries of Jabodetabek
is presented in Table 7.1. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHhy7UYoGuOS5PpbE22OUJCTQV5cGrnPSzgrZBXV9knc_u0ri4RmSrwZipbk6-DKwyM-9w9g_G-Tmu3GVQ-5Z9ED9PJJFV0IFT9KnC-MH_2K_SxC4D0ZxY-Q2vFyALmE7EKFer8b3FYG0/s1116/IMG_9083.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="856" data-original-width="1116" height="306" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHhy7UYoGuOS5PpbE22OUJCTQV5cGrnPSzgrZBXV9knc_u0ri4RmSrwZipbk6-DKwyM-9w9g_G-Tmu3GVQ-5Z9ED9PJJFV0IFT9KnC-MH_2K_SxC4D0ZxY-Q2vFyALmE7EKFer8b3FYG0/w400-h306/IMG_9083.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /><p>The chapter uses a report published in 2014 by the Central Board of Statistics
“Statistik Komuter Jabodetabek” (The Statistics of Commuters in Jabodetabek) to
identify the proportion of employed residents of the peripheries of the metropolitan
region of Jakarta who work in the urban core or DKI Jakarta. According to this report (Central Board of Statistics 2014), less than 15% of residents living in municipalities
within the outer peripheries of Jabodetabek, actually work in DKI Jakarta. The City
of Bogor, Tangerang Regency, Bekasi Regency, and Bogor Regency have 3.2%,
1.7%, 4.2%, and 2.8% of their residents, respectively, who commute and work in
DKI Jakarta. </p><p>Meanwhile, three municipalities within inner peripheries of the metropolitan
region of Jakarta, including Depok City, South Tangerang City, and Bekasi City,
have at least 15% of their residents who commute and work in DKI Jakarta. Depok
City, South Tangerang City, and Bekasi City have 15.7%, 15.3%, and 15.5% of their
residents, respectively, working in the core of Jabodetabek. Tangerang City is the
only municipality within the inner peripheries of Jabodetabek has less than 15%
of the residents working in DKI Jakarta (10.7%). However, Tangerang City is still
included in the study area of this chapter because of its high population density
(12,439 inhabitants per km2), and its close proximity to the core of Jabodetabek.</p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Rapid Urbanization and Income Inequality </h4><p>Jakarta experienced rapid urbanization in the 1980s and 1990s. The population of
the core area of Jabodetabek or DKI Jakarta increased from 6.50 million in 1980
to 8.26 million in 1990. The population of the peripheries of Jabodetabek increased
from 5.41 million to 8.88 million in the same period (Rukmana et al. 2018). In
the 1990s, Jakarta sustained the rapid growth of population, but the growth occurred
mostly in the peripheries. The core area of Jabodetabek experienced a slow growth of
population of 0.15% per year, but the peripheries of Jabodetabek experienced a very
high growth of population of 3.78% per year. In addition to a high population growth
and rural-to-urban migration, this rapid suburbanization was a result of Indonesia’s
steady economic growth and Indonesia’s growing linkages to the world economy
(Herlambang et al. 2019; Indraprahasta and Derudder 2019; Leaf 1994; Winarso
et al. 2015). In the early 1980s, agricultural areas and forests in the outskirts of
Jakarta were transformed into large-scale subdivisions and new towns (Silver 2008).
Jakarta’s suburbanization followed the development of a network of freeways from
Jakarta to the peripheries including the Jagorawi toll road, the Jakarta-Merak toll
road, and the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road (Henderson and Kuncoro 1996). </p><p>The urban development in the peripheries of Jabodetabek is a planned or regulated process (Leaf 1994). It contrasts the unregulated urban growth in the Jakarta’s
kampungs. Suburban development in Jakarta is made up of large-scale housing
projects and new town developments by private developers. These housing projects
and new towns are sold to mostly middle and upper-income residents (Firman 2004;
Leaf 1994). Some of the new towns have excellent infrastructure and facilities,
including shopping malls, hospitals, and golf courses. Many middle and upperincome residents moved from the core of the urban region to new towns in the
peripheries. The poor and lower middle-income residents of the metropolitan region
of Jakarta still live in unplanned and unregulated settlements of kampungs located
in both the core area and in the peripheries. Most residents in kampungs own their
housing units, built with low-quality building materials on small plots of land. Most
of the dwellings are constructed gradually by the residents from permanent and nonpermanent materials, depending largely on what the residents can afford (Tunas and
Peresthu 2010). Many poor kampung residents in the metropolitan region of Jakarta
are marginalized urban residents who illegally construct their dwellings on state land
such as riverbanks, disposal sites, and railway tracks, or on private unoccupied land
(Rukmana 2018; Winayanti and Lang 2004). </p><p>Jakarta is a city of dualistic contrasts (Leaf 1994). The new suburban settlements
or the ‘modern’ city are associated with wealth, formality, and globalized standards
of urban development. Meanwhile, the kampung city is associated with poverty,
informality, and traditional standards of living. The existence of new suburban
communities and kampungs in Jakarta reflects the socioeconomic dualism which
pervades Indonesia’s urban society (Leaf 1994; Winarso 2010). The dualism of
Jakarta’s society also reflects the widening socioeconomic disparities and residential segregation based on income level and lifestyle. Firman (2004) argues that the suburban development of Jakarta creates enclave settlements which segregate middle
and upper-income residents from low-income residents. </p><p>The 1992 Housing and Settlement Law introduced a 1:3:6 provision that requires
developers to build three middle-income and six low-income units for every highincome housing unit. This socially integrated housing policy had two main objectives including producing more affordable houses and encouraging more socially
integrated housing development through mixed-income residential areas (Mungkasa
2013; Silver 2008; Yuniati 2013). In most large-scale housing projects in the
metropolitan region of Jakarta, the developers negotiated the housing compositions
with local governments and even replaced low-cost housing units with public facilities and infrastructure development (Tunas and Darmoyono 2014). The developers
circumvented the 1:3:6 regulation by building the required low-income housing
elsewhere, or not at all (Herlambang et al. 2019). </p><p>Suburban development in the region of Jakarta was disrupted by the economic
crisis which hit many Asian countries in 1997. This crisis resulted in a rapid decrease
in domestic and foreign investment in Jakarta. The annual economic growth in Jakarta
fell to minus 7% (Firman 1999). More than 450 developers who built new towns
and large-scale housing projects in the metropolitan region of Jakarta went out of
business. The property industry consolidated through mergers (Herlambang et al.
2019). By 2002, about two-fifths of the property projects in the metropolitan region
of Jakarta suddenly came to a stop (Firman 2004; Indraprahasta and Derudder 2019). </p><p>From the late 1960s to the mid-1990s, Indonesia’s income per capita increased by
5% per year and the overall Gini coefficient was about 0.33. Indonesia’s Gini coefficient is lower than those of the Philippines and Thailand (0.45) and Malaysia (0.50)
(Timmer 2007). The Asian economic crisis caused a sharp reduction in Indonesia’s
GDP of over 13% and poverty rates doubled in 1998 (Skoufias and Suryahadi 2000).
The Asian economic crisis also sharply reduced inequality in Indonesia, particularly
in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. </p><p>Indonesia’s economy recovered from the Asian economic crisis as early as 2005
(Herlambang et al. 2019). The rate of Indonesia’s economic growth was 5.7% per
year between 2004 and 2008 (Rukmana et al. 2018), and the influx of foreign
direct investment increased again in the metropolitan region of Jakarta (Indraprahasta and Derudder 2019). The recovery of Indonesia’s economic growth resulted
in the construction of high-rise luxury apartments (Rukmana et al. 2018) in many
districts of the core of the metropolitan region of Jakarta such as Nerina Tower in
Cempaka Putih District, Paradise Mansion Apartment in Kalideres District, and Elpis
Residence in Sawah Besar District (Colliers International 2017). Many investors of
these apartments came from China, Singapore, Japan (Colliers International 2018). </p><p>Income inequality measures at the neighborhood level, such as sub-districts (kelurahan), with a population of approximately 20,000 people are not available in
Indonesia (Roitman and Recio 2019). Unlike most census data sets in countries in the
Global North, Indonesia’s censuses do not provide information on household income.
This chapter uses the Gini Index of household expenditure as a proxy measure of
income inequality. The Gini Index of household expenditure in Indonesia was calculated and published by the SMERU Research Institute. The data source for the Gini Index is the National Socioeconomic Survey (Susenas) and Indonesia’s Economic
Census. </p><p>The Gini Index of household expenditure in Indonesia by districts is available
for 2010 and 2015. The average population of each district is about 100,000. The
SMERU Research Institute published the Gini Index in both years and made them
available on their website. The SMERU Research Institute stated in 2019 that the
Gini Index was developed from a series of variables from individual, household, and
sub-district levels, and that the standard error of the 2010 Gini Index derived from
the National Socioeconomic Survey (Susenas) of 2010 is large. This chapter uses
only the 2015 Gini Index due to the large standard error of the 2010 Gini Index.
We retrieved all Gini Indices for all 85 districts of the study area from the SMERU
Research Institute website. The 85 districts of the study area include 42 districts in
DKI Jakarta, 13 districts in Tangerang City, 7 districts in South Tangerang City, 11
districts in Depok City, and 12 districts Bekasi City. </p><p>The 2015 Gini Index in the study area ranges from 0.25 in Bantargebang District
of Bekasi City to 0.40 in Kelapa Gading District of DKI Jakarta’s North Jakarta City.
The 2015 Gini Index average in the area study is 0.31. This Gini Index is slightly
lower than Indonesia’s Gini Index (0.40) in the same year. The Gini Index of four
municipalities in the inner peripheries of the metropolitan region of Jakarta including
Depok City (0.30), South Tangerang City (0.31), Tangerang City (0.31), and Bekasi
City (0.30) are slightly lower than those of the municipalities in DKI Jakarta (0.33)
(Fig. 7.2). </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7vK6r15Pthn3yoVLbviKZF37WJ_hRYRBXoU1qXTNLrm9r_3v-vO5fjr-vVH-Tp1xId02COKaj9QHzsPzL5pS4Kh1e-5vkv4F9m_1vUnjaHOIXmqVUZbP1AemCDwj1hrVFuZmHWtOmLz4/s1040/IMG_9080.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="919" data-original-width="1040" height="354" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7vK6r15Pthn3yoVLbviKZF37WJ_hRYRBXoU1qXTNLrm9r_3v-vO5fjr-vVH-Tp1xId02COKaj9QHzsPzL5pS4Kh1e-5vkv4F9m_1vUnjaHOIXmqVUZbP1AemCDwj1hrVFuZmHWtOmLz4/w400-h354/IMG_9080.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /><p>The distribution of the 2015 Gini Index in the study area is presented in Fig. 7.3.
Five districts in the study area with the highest Gini Index are located in Central
Jakarta City (Cempaka Putih and Menteng Districts), North Jakarta City (Kelapa
Gading District), East Jakarta City (Duren Sawit District), and South Jakarta City
(Kebayoran Baru District). A high Gini Index indicates high levels of economic
inequality in those districts. In districts with high-economic inequality, many luxury
apartment buildings, shopping malls, and offices are surrounded by kampungs
(Budi 2013; Simatupang et al. 2015; Yunianto 2014). Districts with high-economic
inequality also have gated communities which represent socioeconomic enclaves for
the rich (Hun 2002). People who can afford to live in gated communities in Jakarta
do so because of security reasons (Leisch 2002). In the inner peripheries of the
metropolitan region of Jakarta, there are a number of districts with a moderate-tohigh level of income inequality. This income inequality increased in those districts
because of the existence of gated communities including in South Tangerang City
(Leisch 2002; Winarso et al. 2015; Yandri 2015), Tangerang City (Leisch 2002; Surya
Wardhani 2016), and Bekasi City (Diningrat 2015).</p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdiX5iqzxObMaLnlQPJcm9shiTDmrvOvckcx6qf_rRSMZJAcYEAa6fTjNQUNoL3NORVTYkP_WrVv8uNnRf7kwNFbQ-ikrnQrosplws6jO7oE9WD8mE6r-hLuTlkhTsKgBS2ASUDv5EN9U/s2048/Figure+3+200+dpi.tif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1583" data-original-width="2048" height="309" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdiX5iqzxObMaLnlQPJcm9shiTDmrvOvckcx6qf_rRSMZJAcYEAa6fTjNQUNoL3NORVTYkP_WrVv8uNnRf7kwNFbQ-ikrnQrosplws6jO7oE9WD8mE6r-hLuTlkhTsKgBS2ASUDv5EN9U/w400-h309/Figure+3+200+dpi.tif" width="400" /></a></div><br /><h4 style="text-align: left;">Changes in Occupational Structures </h4><p>The economy of the metropolitan region of Jakarta is composed of very diverse
activities and related occupations. This section discusses changes in the occupation
structures in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. We use data from the annual National
Labor Force Survey (Sakernas) in three years (2011, 2015, and 2018).We use this data
to analyze the patterns of socioeconomic segregation over time. The classifications
of the economically active population by occupation in the Sakernas are in line
with those of the International Standard Classification on Occupations (ISCO). The
breakdown of occupational structures of the ISCO also relates to earlier studies on
socioeconomic segregation (Marcinczak et al. 2015; Musterd et al. 2017). </p><p>The occupation classifications of the Sakernas has nine ISCO categories including
managers (MAN), professional (PRO), technicians (TEC), clerks (CLE), sellers
(SEL), agriculture workers (ARG), industrial workers (IND), machine operators
(MAC), and unskilled workers (UNS). The nine categories were grouped into three
broader occupational groups. The managers and professionals fall into the top occupational group (TOG). The technicians, clerks, and sellers are categorized in the middle occupational group (MOG), while agricultural workers, industrial workers,
machine operators, and unskilled workers form the bottom occupational group
(BOG). </p><p>Figure 7.2 shows the distribution of occupational groups in 2011, 2015, and
2018 in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. It is clear that the population in Jakarta
Metropolitan Area (JMA) is dominated by the MOG, and the percentage of this
middle group has grown between 2011 and 2018. Sellers are the largest occupational
group, followed by unskilled workers, clerks, machine operators, industrial workers,
professionals, technicians, manager, and agricultural workers. The small number of
agricultural workers in the Jakarta region is due to the urban character of the region,
and the disappearance of farmland and rice fields in the JMA. The largest occupational category in the BOG consists of unskilled workers. As can be seen in Fig. 7.2,
both the TOG and MOG have been increasing from 2011 to 2018. In the meantime,
the BOG have been decreasing during the same time period. The percentage of the
TOG is far below the BOG and MOG. The number of workers in the TOG, with
high-quality human resources, is still low for a growing megacity like the JMA. The
size of this top group has hardly increased between 2011 and 2018.</p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Levels of Residential Segregation Between
Socioeconomic Groups </h4><p>The Dissimilarity Index (DI) in Table 7.2 shows the level of segregation between
the different occupational categories. This chapter uses data on the occupation structure from the annual National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas) to calculate dissimilarity index in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. Indonesia’s censuses or household
surveys do not provide socioeconomic information of households at the neighborhood level. Data on the occupation structure derived from the annual National Labor
Force Survey (Sakernas) can only be used at the level of municipalities or higher.
We have a total of nine municipalities including five municipalities within DKI
Jakarta (West Jakarta City, East Jakarta City, Central Jakarta City, North Jakarta
City, and South Jakarta City) and four municipalities in the inner peripheries of the
metropolitan region of Jakarta (City of Tangerang, City of South Tangerang, City of
Depok, City of Bekasi). The population size of these municipalities in 2015 ranges
from 0.91 million in Central Jakarta City to 2.84 million in East Jakarta City. The
Sakernas has very limited samples at the district or sub-district levels; therefore, we
cannot use a smaller geographic unit for calculating a dissimilarity index. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDzHkzBe6BbL87IjzY2IeBxpvsFE8CrXGbv6Pf9h7o1IFCi6yU3vVoV2cH6ZQUfVHv2BGbxvApz1yFLM3ema4j6hOppaM-Dp9lME-k_fhNlCsuWbUvHO9ZrolQiToY8mU5tU0SBB_1e3s/s1106/IMG_9081.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="580" data-original-width="1106" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDzHkzBe6BbL87IjzY2IeBxpvsFE8CrXGbv6Pf9h7o1IFCi6yU3vVoV2cH6ZQUfVHv2BGbxvApz1yFLM3ema4j6hOppaM-Dp9lME-k_fhNlCsuWbUvHO9ZrolQiToY8mU5tU0SBB_1e3s/w400-h210/IMG_9081.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><p>In Table 7.2, the DI in 2011 is shown below the diagonal gray cells, while the DI
in 2018 is shown above the diagonal gray cells. The most prominent DI in 2011 is
segregation between agricultural workers and all other categories in the TOG and
MOG. But it has to be noted that the group of agricultural workers is very small. The
lowest DI is denoted by technicians and professionals (6.3), followed by unskilled
workers and clerks (9.7). In 2018, the highest DI is found for sellers and agricultural
workers (33.9), and the lowest DI for clerks and other categories with values below
11, except that of the agricultural workers (33.9). The lowest DI in 2018 is found for
technicians and professionals (5.6).</p><p>For the broader occupational group, it can be seen that the DIs for all combinations of groups are decreasing. It means that the spatial enclaves of these sociooccupational groups are getting smaller. In other words, the segregation level among
occupational groups is decreasing and the municipalities in Jakarta are more mixed
in 2018 than in 2011. It is especially apparent in the spatial proximity between the
kampongs and neighboring luxury apartment buildings in the inner city, such as in
Mega Kuningan (Budi 2013), Menteng, and Rasuna (Simatupang et al. 2015), and
Kemayoran (Yunianto 2014). </p><p>The biggest decline is related to the DI between the TOG and MOG category,
which halves from 15 in 2011 to 7.7 in 2018. It is then followed by the 3.9 points
decrease of the TOP and BOG from 13 in 2011 to 9.1 in 2018. The smallest reduction
is found for the DI of the MOG and the BOG category from 8.6 in 2011 to 5.9 in
2018. It can also be seen that the order of the highest to smallest DI is shifting. The
order in 2011 is TOG-MOG (15), TOG-BOG (13), and MOG-BOG (8.6), while the
order in 2018 is TOG-BOG (9.1), TOG-MOG (7.7), and MOG-BOG (5.9). From the
order of the DI, it can be concluded that TOG is still the most segregated group when
compared with the others, though the gap is getting smaller.</p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Geography of Residential Segregation Between
Socioeconomic Groups </h4><p>This section analyzes the geography of residential segregation between the top and
the bottom socioeconomic groups. We use location quotient maps for the top and
bottom occupation groups at the level of municipalities as a proxy measure of changes
in residential segregation between socioeconomic groups. Location quotients of the
occupational structure by municipalities in the study area were calculated from the
2011 and 2018 Sakernas surveys. The location quotients of the TOG in 2011 range
from 0.58 in North Jakarta City to 1.72 in Central Jakarta City. Central Jakarta
City remained as the municipality with the highest location quotient (1.45) and East
Jakarta City became the municipality with the lowest location quotient (0.88) in 2018.
The location quotients for the BOG in 2011 ranged from 0.72 (East Jakarta City) to
1.42 (Tangerang City). In 2018, East Jakarta City remained as the municipality with
the lowest location quotient (0.71) and Central Jakarta City was the municipality
with the highest location quotient for the BOG (1.75). </p><p>Figure 7.4 shows the location quotient maps for the top and bottom occupational
groups in 2011 and 2018. These maps cannot show changes in residential segregation,
but they do give an indication of changes in the geographical concentrations of
the top and bottom occupational groups at the municipal level. The TOG remains
highly concentrated in Central Jakarta City and South Tangerang City. Some luxury
apartments such as Keraton and Le Parc in Central Jakarta City reached to US$10,700
and US$5,350 per m2, respectively (Alexander 2019). This price is far higher than
the rest of the city. In contrast, the lowest land price in the inner city of Jakarta can be found at Kamal Muara, North Jakarta, which is worth merely US$34 per
m2 (Elmanisa et al. 2016). Meanwhile, South Tangerang City has a couple of large
luxury residential areas including Bintaro Jaya and BSD City. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzANgS3V23lLe3F_09FXFsKYJMN2SMr7o06-W21_FccwrsL6eJqqqJUBFsa_wYISfUfvaRn_9tj-PVJXrduSFnLXpKr2CLpyDhgB1-ZmcEP9wYn4y7wT9EnRZOs2zf84qLrmzirA1WgF4/s1340/IMG_9082.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1340" data-original-width="1044" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzANgS3V23lLe3F_09FXFsKYJMN2SMr7o06-W21_FccwrsL6eJqqqJUBFsa_wYISfUfvaRn_9tj-PVJXrduSFnLXpKr2CLpyDhgB1-ZmcEP9wYn4y7wT9EnRZOs2zf84qLrmzirA1WgF4/w498-h640/IMG_9082.jpg" width="498" /></a></div><br /><p>Central Jakarta City became a concentration area for both the TOG and BOG.
According to an interview with staff from the Housing Department of Jakarta
Province, such a concentration is the result of the fact that luxury houses and apartments are increasingly found in Central Jakarta City. It is also the location of many
shopping malls, the central business district, government buildings, embassies, and
official government houses which makes the land and housing prices expensive. The
high concentration of the TOG in South Tangerang City is caused by the development of a new central business district, and middle-upper class housing, especially
in Bumi Serpong Damai (BSD). In addition, both Central Jakarta City and South
Tangerang City have good accessibility and are connected with highways and train
routes. </p><p>In reference to Fig. 7.4a, b, many households of the top occupational group moved
from Tangerang City to the core of the metropolitan region of Jakarta. It relates to the
fact that a large industrial area is located in Tangerang. The laborers which fall into the
BOG mostly reside in Tangerang. Meanwhile, the BOG remains highly concentrated
in Central Jakarta City and Tangerang City. Behind the high-rise buildings in Central
Jakarta City, there can be found many informal housing areas in the form of urban
kampongs. Based on an interview with a staff member from the Housing Department
of Jakarta Province, urban kampongs in Jakarta are the residential locations for
the BOG or informal sector workers such as street vendors, cleaning workers, and
security guards. </p><p>The changes of location quotients indicate that four municipalities have an
increased concentration of the TOG in 2018 including West Jakarta City, East Jakarta
City, North Jakarta City, and Depok City. It is marked by several concentrations
of luxury apartments found in those municipalities, such as Veranda Residence,
Wang Residence, St Moritz (West Jakarta City), The H Residence, Patria Park (East
Jakarta City), Regatta London Tower, The Summit, Sherwood Residence (North
Jakarta City), De Vonte Apartments, Grand Depok City, Permata Green Sentosa, and
Victoria Hills Residence (Depok City). </p><p>In the meantime, three municipalities experienced an increased concentration of
the BOG in 2018 including Central Jakarta City, South Jakarta City, and Bekasi City.
Tangerang City is the only municipality in the study area experiencing a decreased
concentration of both top and bottom occupational groups from 2011 to 2018. A
further analysis shows that Tangerang City has an increased concentration of the
middle occupational group during the same period.</p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Conclusion </h4><p>This chapter describes changes in inequality and socioeconomic segregation in the
core and the inner peripheries of the Jakarta metropolitan region. Under the transformative government of Indonesia, Jakarta has experienced various kinds of development, the most important of which is openness to private and foreign investment. The
suburban area of Jakarta has grown rapidly and transformed rural areas and agricultural land into a vast area of housing which were targeted mostly to the middle-upper
class community. This has led to rather homogenous socioeconomic areas in the
outskirts of the metropolitan area. As the result, the Gini Indices in the inner periphery
of Jakarta are lower than those in the municipalities of DKI Jakarta. It means that the
household expenditure inequality in the inner periphery is narrower than that in the
municipalities of DKI Jakarta. The high Gini Indices in the municipalities of DKI
Jakarta are caused by the existence of urban kampongs among the high-rise building
with luxury apartments, offices, and shopping center. Meanwhile, segregation in the
periphery of Jakarta occurred because of gated communities developed by the private
sector. </p><p>In 2030, vertical housing for the low, middle, and upper class will dominate the
city. A lecturer from the University of Tarumanegara, Suryono Herlambang, argued
that the existence of vertical housing will worsen residential segregation (Mariani
2019). Vertical residential buildings tend to be more socioeconomically segregated.
The luxury apartments and penthouse for the upper class are built separately from
low-cost apartments for the middle-low class will (Mariani 2019). This chapter used
data by municipalities for calculating the segregation indices. If data would have
been available at a smaller geographical unit, the levels of residential segregation
would be possibly higher. </p><p>The occupational profile breakdown shows that the Jakarta Metropolitan Area
residents are dominated by the MOG, and then followed by the BOG and TOG. The
largest groups are the sellers (MOG) and unskilled workers (BOG), and the size
of the TOG group is relatively small. As the LQ maps showed, it is obvious that
the high proportion of LOG occupied more municipalities than the TOG. However,
housing provision by the private sector does not meet the demand for the middleand low-class population of society who reside outside gated communities and create
segregated residential areas. </p><p>The socioeconomic segregation in JMA is fostered by the government’s policy on
land use. The privatization of land in the core and the inner peripheries of Jakarta by
private developers affected the housing market and the affordability of the community. Addressing segregation in this context should not only rely on controlling
the housing market, but also on developing community capacity and creating more
employment opportunities in JMA. </p><p>In August 2019, Indonesia’s President Joko Widodo announced Indonesia’s
capital relocation plan. The government of Indonesia selected two regencies (North
Penajam Paser and Kutai Kartanegara) in East Kalimantan as the new site for
Indonesia’s capital. The governmental function and buildings will be moved to the new site and will be ready for occupation in 2024. However, Jakarta will remain
the country’s economic hub. It means that the housing market in Jakarta will remain
tense. Furthermore, the 2030 Jakarta Spatial Plan also mentions the phrase ‘estate
management’ which means land management in Jakarta will be bestowed to private
developers. The relocation of Indonesia’s capital out of Jakarta will not ease the
myriad of problems Jakarta will face, especially as it is projected that 1.5 million
people will migrate from Jakarta (Walton 2019). Jakarta’s problems will remain in
place unless serious attention is paid to them including socioeconomic segregation
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Makassar. Unpublished master’s thesis. Erasmus University, Rotterdam </p><p>Yunianto T (2014) On the verge of displacement. Thesis Eleven 121(1):101–121</p>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-6389720055027058482020-12-18T20:08:00.017-05:002020-12-18T20:50:46.133-05:00Shaping the Global South<blockquote><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>In late September 2020, I was invited by the editor of <a href="https://www.toposmagazine.com/" target="_blank">Topos magazine</a>, <span style="background-color: white; color: #0f1419; white-space: pre-wrap;">a professional magazine for landscape architectures, urban designers, & urban planners based in Germany, to write an article on planning megacities in the Global South for the upcoming issue on urban mutations. I accepted the invitation and wrote the article that has been published on the week of December 14, 2020. I am pleased to share the article here. </span></i></span></h4></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">[To cite this article: <b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Rukmana,
Deden. </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(2020). Shaping the Global
South. <i>Topos Magazine. </i>December 2020 edition. pp. 38-43]</span> </span></span></blockquote><p></p><p>The global population has been experiencing
a process of rapid urbanization for more than six decades. Cities are now home
to 55 percent of the world’s population. Since 2007, the world’s urban
population has exceeded, and grown faster than, its rural population. By 2030, the urban population is projected to
rise to 60 percent of the world’s overall population; at that time approximately
730 million people will live in megacities. These vast metropolitan areas will
play a critical role in the sustainability and livability of the globe in the
next few decades (Sorensen & Okata 2011). Some studies define a megacity as
an urban agglomeration with more than 5 million people (Beirle et al. 2011;
Kraas 2007), others use the threshold of more than 8 million inhabitants
(Gilbert 1996). This article defines a megacity as a continuous urban area with
a population in excess of 10 million people. This definition has been widely
used in reports published by the United Nations, particularly the World
Urbanization Prospects of the UN’s Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(UNDESA). </p><p class="MsoNormal">In 1960, only three
cities could be classified as a megacity: Tokyo, Osaka and New York. All three
were located in the Global North. In 1980, two new cities in the Global South
met the definition of a megacity used here: Mexico City and S<em>ã</em>o Paulo.
In 2000, the number grew to 16, including five megacities in the Global North
(Tokyo, Osaka, New York City, Los Angeles, and Moscow) and 11 megacities in the
Global South (Delhi, Shanghai, Mumbai, Beijing, Dhaka, Cairo, Mexico City, S<em>ã</em>o
Paulo, Kolkata, Buenos Aires, and Rio de Janeiro). <o:p></o:p></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">Between 2000
and 2018, no less than 17 new megacities emerged. Only one of them is located
in the Global North: Paris. The new 16 megacities of the Global South include
four Chinese cities (Guangzhou, Chongqing, Tianjin and Shenzhen), two Indian
cities (Bangalore, Chennai), two Pakistani cities (Karachi and Lahore), two
African cities (Lagos and Kinshasa), two South American cities (Bogotà and
Lima), and four other Asian cities (Istanbul, Manila, Jakarta and Bangkok). </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Distribution of the
world’s megacities in 1960, 1980, 2000, 2018 and 2030<span style="text-align: center;"> </span></span></b></p>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: -0.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1024; width: 595px;">
<tbody><tr>
<td style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; text-align: right; width: 130.25pt;" width="217"></td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">1960<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2018<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2030<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><i><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Global
North</span></i><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">5<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">7<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;"> North
America<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Europe<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Japan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><i><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">Global
South<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">11<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">27<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">34<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Central
and South America<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">4<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">
Africa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">
China<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">7<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">
India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">5<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">7<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">
Rest of Asia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">7<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">8<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="217">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><i><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">World<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.1pt;" valign="top" width="77">
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 106%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">5<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.55pt;" valign="top" width="74">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">16<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 43.75pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">33<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 47.85pt;" valign="top" width="80">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 10pt;">41<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sources:
Rukmana (2020), UNDESA (2019) </span><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst">According to
World Urbanization Prospects (UNDESA 2019), the Global South is projected to be
home to 34 out of 41 megacities in 2030, adding seven new megacities between
2018 and 2030: Hyderabad, Johannesburg, Dar es Salaam, Ahmadabad, Luanda, Ho
Chi Minh City, and Chengdu. The only agglomeration in the Global North expected
to become a megacity before 2030 will be London.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">The growth
of megacities in the Global South presents major challenges for urban
governance and planning. To master them, developing planning tools that
consider the specific conditions of cities in the Global South will be crucial.<o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsBHgRuixVlUPpeD30HmIH9K4kaxPDpnhAlpL_MRTIs6Qm6_KYczEJGUFyvYwpXT-SK5mRdlUKEnpfGHww59YGqnq3SlwB-kD11Fhh3IuTpOU679q3TcPMAfxvmLeRwVTM-JFiNp9ZaAE/s2048/Urban+dualism+-+Jakarta+1.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1365" data-original-width="2048" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsBHgRuixVlUPpeD30HmIH9K4kaxPDpnhAlpL_MRTIs6Qm6_KYczEJGUFyvYwpXT-SK5mRdlUKEnpfGHww59YGqnq3SlwB-kD11Fhh3IuTpOU679q3TcPMAfxvmLeRwVTM-JFiNp9ZaAE/w640-h426/Urban+dualism+-+Jakarta+1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><i><b>Rapid urban growth </b></i></h4><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: DE;">The megacities in the Global South have grown from cities with discernible
boundaries to giant, endlessly sprawling metropolitan areas. The core city boundaries,
which had been inherited from the era of colonialism, were transcended as a
result of rapid population growth and the accompanying expansion of economic
activities. The massive expansion of suburbs was also the result of a series of
deregulation measures and economic reforms instituted in many countries of the
Global South (Rustiadi et al 2020; Yeh & Chen 2020). Agricultural areas and
forests were converted into residential areas and industrial zones at a massive
scale. The residential areas that have emerged are often divided along class lines,
producing cityscapes of high social contrast, ranging from informal settlements
to affluent gated communities. Developed for middle and upper income groups, such
estates typically offer high-standard shopping malls, cinemas, hospitals and other
amenities, while the so-called slums usually lack adequate public
infrastructure. In many instances the emergence of new suburban towns led to
large-scale displacement of farmers and other existing residents, their
displacement frequently enacted through eviction procedures. In most cases, urban
sprawl in megacities is an uncontrolled and unexpected process, with the expansion
of the city’s boundaries occurring at a greater pace than planning and
interference by local governments</span></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><i><b>Urban informality and dualism </b></i></h4><p class="MsoNormal">A distinct feature of
cities in the Global South is their informality, a concept that refers to
spatial as well as socio-economic dimensions. Spatially, a considerable if not
the bigger part of the urban fabric consists of informal structures, as most
urban inhabitants in the Global South have to house themselves. Neither the
market nor the public sector offers affordable land or housing to cover their
needs. The OECD defines informal settlements as “1. areas where groups of
housing units have been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal
claim to, or occupy illegally;” and “2. as unplanned settlements and areas
where housing is not in compliance with current planning and building
regulations (unauthorized housing)” (OECD). <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #111111; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Informal housing is a product of poverty
and rapid urbanization (Gonzalez </span>2008<span style="color: #111111; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">), predominantly resulting from
rural-to-urban migration. The hopes for employment and a better income that
draw many migrants to cities are often disappointed. They usually have no other
choice but to move into already overcrowded settlements or create new ones as
they arrive. Frequently such settlements are located in </span>geographically and environmentally sensitive
areas such as riverbanks, wetlands, floodplains, steep slopes, etc. Their legal
status is likewise insecure as the land that has been seized is either<span style="color: #111111; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> unoccupied state-owned land, e.g.
disposal sites or railway tracks, or private unoccupied land. </span>The lack of security of tenure for the land or
dwellings inhabited cements the permanent urban crisis to which the inhabitants
are forced to adapt, a crisis that is marked by the inadequacy or absence of
basic services and city infrastructure, particularly housing, insufficient growth
management and social inequality (Roy 2009).<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">The World Urbanization Prospects (UNDESA 2019)
report 883 million people or 22.8 percent of the world’s urban population
living in slums or informal housing in 2014. The majority of people living in such
inferior and insecure conditions are located in Eastern and South-Eastern Asia
(332 million), Central and Southern Asia (197 million) and Sub-Saharan Africa
(189 million).</p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #111111; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">A further dimension of urban informality
concerns the structure of the economy. The majority of the working</span> population in cities of the Global South is
employed in informal arrangements of production, distribution and trade. Most
workers enter the informal sector due to a lack of opportunities in the formal
economy.<span style="color: #111111; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span>The most recent global estimates on the size of
informal employment, published by the International Labor Organization in 2018,
calculate that 44 percent of the world’s workers are informally employed in urban
areas. The proportion varies by region and country. Countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa have the highest proportion of informal employment in urban areas (77
percent), followed by Southeast Asia (73 percent), South Asia (72 percent), Central
America (58 percent), South America (49 percent), and China (36 percent). Those
working in the informal economy are usually deprived of decent working
conditions. Many of them also fail to meet state regulations and are classified
as illegal (Skinner & Watson 2018).<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">As these descriptions
demonstrate, there are good reasons for considering urban informality in the
Global South the norm rather than the exception. Some planning theorists (Roy
2005; Porter 2011; Yiftachel 2009) suggest that urban informality is not
separable from urban formality, that it should be seen as a system of norms
that governs the transformation of cities. In other words, informality is a
mode of metropolitan transformation in the Global South, but an insignificant mode
of development for cities of the Global North. In the developing world, the
state and its planning authorities contribute to the production and maintenance
of urban informality rather than seeking to prohibit or prevent it (Roy 2009;
Yiftachel 2009). The presence of informality as a mode of urban transformation
is manifested in the spatial layout of cities. Slums or informal settlements are
frequently located around, or in the immediate vicinity of, exclusive
residential high-rises in inner-city areas or gated communities in urban
peripheral areas. Informal sector workers engage in activities with formal
sector workers in the same urban spaces.</p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">This urban
dualism is a further distinct feature of cities of the Global South. Spaces of
formality and global culture and informal spaces of slums and squatter
settlements are adjacent to each other and their inhabitants cooperate at many
levels and in numerous sectors, contributing in important ways to the efficient
functioning of the city. Such spaces of dualistic contrasts are much more
pronounced and frequent in developing countries. In most megacities of the
Global South, this urban dualism is also the legacy of colonialism. The divide
between the formal and informal city continued throughout colonial and
post-colonial periods.<o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrUdHquP1Ok3_sGZwZN0bdiwd5TMqetwByM3Jn3QSK3_r7v9F85j6vImPRwKYDRZhpF-MVZUkiT42X7a99nr-0bYwwiWWQGY662Ts5zWcksenLyprvadYFvDjJoRhRFm_wHIaoD9xKvxI/s2048/Urban+dualism+-+Jakarta+2.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1536" data-original-width="2048" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrUdHquP1Ok3_sGZwZN0bdiwd5TMqetwByM3Jn3QSK3_r7v9F85j6vImPRwKYDRZhpF-MVZUkiT42X7a99nr-0bYwwiWWQGY662Ts5zWcksenLyprvadYFvDjJoRhRFm_wHIaoD9xKvxI/w640-h480/Urban+dualism+-+Jakarta+2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><i><b><br /></b></i></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><i><b>Planning initiatives and innovations</b></i></h4><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">Planners in
the Global South need to understand the relationship between urban informality
and their planning work. Informal spaces are often misperceived as
‘unplannable’. This misperception lies at the basis for numerous attempts to
integrate such spaces into formal urban structures and global culture (Roy
2005). Informal spaces interact extensively with the formal spaces; they evolve
over time and hybridize. Informal settlements become the means for urban poor
to secure income, housing and services. Therefore, planners need to recognize
the value of these spaces and how they become part of the physical and
socio-economic fabric of the city. The experience of slum clearance and
relocation programs has taught planners that such actions are no solution as
they only moved the same substandard houses to new places, usually urban
peripheral areas. In fact, there was no need to demolish slums because they
were part of the solution. Similarly, top-to-bottom upgrading programs have
been disappointing as they have produced high levels of household displacement.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">As a
consequence, many megacities in the Global South have applied a “self-help” approach
to implement strategies of upgrading for improving and consolidating the
existing homes of slum dwellers. The concept is that the inhabitants improve
their housing incrementally by using better materials and adding more space
(Mukhija 2001). Studies show that the “self-help” method is superior to total
redevelopment in terms of affordability, flexibility, and encouraging human
creativity in seeking value in life (Pugh 2001; Rukmana 2018). <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">To
policy-makers in the Global South, the “self-help” approach is appealing because
it is an inexpensive solution to the housing crisis (Rukmana 2018). Through in-situ
upgrading of existing buildings, the number of slum dwellers who are relocated
to other sites is minimized and the extent of disruption to the social and economic
networks of slum dwellers is reduced. The “self-help” approach largely does
without displacement and has been key to the success of many slum upgrading programs.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">Planners in
the Global South furthermore need to understand the importance of spaces provision
for the informal economy. Some governments have taken violent measures against
the informal economy due to pressure from the urban elite or private sector
land developers. The use of urban planning to constrain the activities of the
informal economy is facilitated by the legacy of colonialism, particularly the
planning legislation that has survived from the colonial era in many places. Former
British colonies in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, adopted
British planning laws aiming at the ‘orderly’ development of cities. The plans based
on these laws promote urban structures that provide no space for an informal
economy (Skinner & Watson 2018). As a result, such plans become a source of
conflict between urban authorities and the informal economy workers. A case in
point is the eviction of street vendors whose work collides with the focus on
order and beautification that urban planners still bound by colonial-era urban
planning thinking will necessarily prioritize. By contrast, accommodating the
informal sectors in urban spaces will aid an urban transformation that increases
the quality of life in those areas that urgently need improvement (Rukmana &
Purbadi 2013).</p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">It is a sign
of adjustment in the right direction that many countries in the Global South, among
them Mexico, Colombia, and India, have understood the importance of street
vendors for the economy and wellbeing of their cities and now recognize the
constitutional right of people to work on the street. (Skinner & Watson 2018).
Street vending is a significant element of cities developing countries and has
two important characteristics: mobility and flexibility (Bromley 2000). Street
vendors tend to cluster towards areas with high levels of business
opportunities, such as central business districts, commercial centers,
transportation terminals, sports and entertainment venues and major tourist
attractions. They can bring life to dreary streets and serve as living signs
where economic activity is concentrated. They can offer colorful stalls and
merchandise that attract more people to visit. Street vendors can provide “an
element of novelty, and add conviviality, congeniality and just a little
congestion to the environment” (Bromley 2000).<o:p></o:p></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><i><b>Conclusion</b></i></h4><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">Planning the
megacities of the Global South is an urgent and critical task for securing the
sustainability and livability of the globe in the coming decades. The core
feature of urban transformation in the Global South is urban informality, a
phenomenon that plays a comparatively insignificant role in today’s cities of
the Global North. In other words, urban informality is the norm rather than the
exception in cities of the developing world. Here the majority of workers earn
a living in the informal economy, and the urban space is characterized by stark
dualistic contrasts of informal and formal structures. Planners in the Global
South need to engage with the specific challenges that come with this
informality, a task that involves a change of perspective whose difficulty lies
in it being paradoxical to the very nature of planning. Roy (2005) pointed this
out in her seminal article on urban informality: “To deal with informality …
partly means confronting how the apparatus of planning produces the unplanned
and unplannable.”<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpLast"><b>References</b></p><p class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: normal;"><b><o:p></o:p></b></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Beirle, S., Boersma,
K. F., Platt, U., Lawrence, M. G., & Wagner, T. (2011). “Megacity emissions
and lifetimes of nitrogen oxides probed from space”. <i>Science</i>, 333(6050),
1737–1739.</p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Bromley, R. (2000). “Street
vending and public policy: A global review”. </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy </i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">20(1/2): 1–28.</span></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Gilbert, A. (1996). <i>The Mega-city in Latin America. </i>Tokyo/New
York/Paris: United Nations University Press.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Gonzalez, C. (2008). “Squatters, pirates,
and entrepreneurs: Is informality the solution to the urban housing crisis?” <i>University of Miami
Inter-American Law</i> <i>Review, 40, </i>239–259.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">International Labor
Organization. (2018). <i>Women and Men in
the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture</i>. 3rd Edition. Geneva: ILO<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Kraas, F. (2007). “Megacities
and global change: Key priorities”. <i>Geographical
Journal</i>, 173(1), 79–82.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Mukhija, V. (2001). “Upgrading housing
settlements in developing countries: The impact of existing physical conditions”.
<i>Cities, </i>18(4),
213–222.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Odendaal, N. and A.
McCann. (2016). “Spatial planning in the Global South: Reflections on the Cape
Town Spatial Development Framework”. <i>International
Development Planning Review</i> 38(4): 405–423<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Porter, L. (2011). “Informality,
the commons and the paradoxes for planning: Concepts and debates for
informality and planning”. <i>Planning
Theory & Practice </i>12(1), 115–120<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
</p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">Pugh, C. (2001). “The theory and practice
of housing sector development for developing countries, 1950–99”. <i>Housing Studies, </i>16(4),
399–423.<o:p></o:p></p><p>
</p><p> </p><p><br /></p><p> </p><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-77859209709951506442020-07-11T12:15:00.001-05:002020-07-14T09:48:34.234-05:00Planning Megacities in the Global South<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
I am
thrilled to announce the publication of my new edited book "<a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Handbook-of-Planning-Megacities-in-the-Global-South-1st/Rukmana/p/book/9780367223724" target="_blank">The Routledge Handbook of Planning
Megacities in the Global South</a>". The book is the culmination of
my research interest on various aspects of planning in megacities of the Global
South. I have studying Jakarta for more than twelve years on many aspects of
planning such as transportation, housing, poverty, informality,
resilience, spatial planning, and community participation. This blog established
in January 2007 is the compilation of my research on various aspects of
planning in Indonesian cities particularly Jakarta. I have been wondering if we
could have a book that offers various aspects of planning from all megacities
in the Global South. We should learn from the best practices and challenges of
planning practices in all megacities in the Global South. The scale and
complexity of megacities should make this book a significant resource for the
discipline of urban planning.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
The book
provides rigorous comparative evidence of planning megacities of the Global
South. The book discusses the planning challenges, processes, and initiatives
of 28 megacities in the Global South. These megacities are located in all
continents of the Global South including Middle America, South America, Middle
East, Africa, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. A total of 51 scholars
from different geographies and career stages contributed to this volume and
discussed the best practices and challenges of planning in 29 chapters. Breadth
is the main strength of this volume. The chapters cover just about every major
issue. The specific focus on planning is unique and essential for the
discipline of urban planning. Most contributors are non-Western researchers who
have the knowledge and credentials to write about the challenges and
opportunities of planning in megacities globally. This is one of important
features of the book. The following section is the introduction of the book
that is also available from <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781003038160" style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;" target="_blank">this link</a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3DuUh7zvQK8rLO7JurmslP6_bxnomDnlQOiLyvg_Gv0H6R_zQyHrs0muQxHWHbagzBioLbhLY3D5Y8xdEnHL5GWZNBixE3lgHm2N8Mqs80WL1u9mdFXFSmndGWqmLPXShAvBzTdDpJq0/s1600/RH+Planning+Megacities+in+the+Global+South.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1124" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3DuUh7zvQK8rLO7JurmslP6_bxnomDnlQOiLyvg_Gv0H6R_zQyHrs0muQxHWHbagzBioLbhLY3D5Y8xdEnHL5GWZNBixE3lgHm2N8Mqs80WL1u9mdFXFSmndGWqmLPXShAvBzTdDpJq0/s640/RH+Planning+Megacities+in+the+Global+South.jpg" width="449" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Introduction of the book</span></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The world has transformed and cities are
now home to 55 percent of the world’s population (UNDESA 2019). The world’s
urban population is projected to rise to sixty percent of world’s population
and 730 million people will live in megacities by 2030. Megacities will play a
very critical role in the sustainability and livability of the globe in the
next few decades (Sorensen and Okata 2011). Some studies define megacity as a
city with more than 5 million inhabitants (Beirle et al 2011; Kraas 2007). This
book uses the definition of megacity as a continuous urban area with a
population in excess of 10 million people. This definition has also been widely
used by the United Nations reports particularly the World Urbanization Prospects
of the UN’s Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">T</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">he global population has experienced a
process of rapid urbanization more than six decades ago. Between 1960 and 2018,
the global urban population grew about four-fold, from 1.02 billion to 4.22
billion. In 1960, about two-third of the world’s population resided in rural
areas. For the first time in history, the world’s urban population exceeded the
world’s rural population in 2007 and since then the world’s urban population
has grown faster than the rural population.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">In 1960, industrialized countries in the
Global North had more than sixty percent of the population lived in urban
areas. Some countries in South America including Uruguay, Argentine, Chile, and
Venezuela and some countries in the Middle East including Qatar, Bahrain,
Israel and Kuwait and United Arab Emirates had also achieved high levels of
urbanization. On the other hand, most countries in Asia and Africa had low
levels of urbanization. These countries had less than a quarter of the
population lived in the urban areas including Democratic Republic of the Congo
(22.3), Pakistan (22.1), India (17.9), China (16.2%), Indonesia (14.6%), Angola
(10.4%) and Tanzania (5.2%).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Between 1960 and 1980, some countries in
the Middle East including Libya, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Oman and Iraq, a few
African countries (Djibouti, Zambia and Mauritania), South Korea and a few
European countries (Bulgaria, Belarus, and Norway) were urbanizing faster with
the proportion of urban population increased by more than 20 points. For
instance, the urban population in Libya had increased by 43 points from 27% in
1960 to 70% in 1980. Over the same period of time, some South and Middle
American countries such as Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and
Mexico had also experienced high levels of urbanization by 11-20 points. <b>Figure
i </b>shows the changes of the level of urbanization by countries during 1960-1980,
1980-2000 and 2000-2020. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisUQYpRHo8ULt4IHNcUFBv3K9nVPafFWnZ5eTHFXAFwPdaCaIY7xVX6iHZr75cubNM23-cgnd-DhGfVPwEpNZKB_OaTuLHJ1NPbFo8HgXc8GUKs1AIB89CsTfm2gGIVOwMpJeeexoHjMA/s1600/Figure+i.tif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1056" data-original-width="816" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisUQYpRHo8ULt4IHNcUFBv3K9nVPafFWnZ5eTHFXAFwPdaCaIY7xVX6iHZr75cubNM23-cgnd-DhGfVPwEpNZKB_OaTuLHJ1NPbFo8HgXc8GUKs1AIB89CsTfm2gGIVOwMpJeeexoHjMA/s640/Figure+i.tif" width="494" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Figure i<br />The changes of the level of urbanization by countries; Data source:
UNDESA, 2019</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Some countries in Africa including
Botswana, Gabon, and Mauritania experienced the world’s highest pace of
urbanization between 1980 and 2000. The urban population in these African
countries and a few other countries including Oman, South Korea, Turkey and
Malaysia had increased by more than 20 points from 1980 to 2000. Three large
and populous countries including China (16.5 points), Indonesia (19.9%) and
Brazil (15.7%) also experienced high levels of urbanization over the same
period of time. Between 2000 and 2020, China is expected to urbanize at the
highest level. China’s level of urbanization is projected to increase from 36%
in 2000 to 61% in 2020. Some countries including Haiti, Thailand, Maldives,
Costarica, Laos, Dominican Republic and Albania are expected to become more
significantly more urbanized and increase their level of urbanization by more
than 20 points.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">In 1960, only three cities could be
classified as a megacity: Tokyo, Osaka and New York. All these megacities are
located in the Global North. In 1980, two new megacities in the Global South met
this classification: Mexico City and Sao Paulo. In 2000, the world’s megacities
grew to 16 megacities including 5 megacities in the Global North (Tokyo, Osaka,
New York City, Los Angeles, and Moscow) and 11 megacities in the Global South
(Delhi, Shanghai, Mumbai, Beijing, Dhaka, Cairo, Mexico City, Sao Paulo,
Kolkata, Buenos Aires, and Rio de Jainero).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">According to the World Urbanization
Prospects (UNDESA 2019), there were 17 new megacities between 2000 and 2018.
Only one megacity out of these seventeen new megacities came from the Global
North: Paris. The new sixteen megacities of the Global South include four
Chinese cities, three Indian cities, two Pakistani cities, two African cities,
two South American cities, three other Asian cities. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">In 2030, the Global South is expected to home
to 34 out of 41 megacities in the world as presented in </span><b style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Table i</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> and </span><b style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure ii</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
The Global South will add new 7 world’s megacities between 2018 and 2030. These
eight new megacities include Hyderabad, Johannesburg, Dar es Salaam, Ahmadabad,
Luanda, Ho Chi Minh City, and Chengdu. The only new megacities from the Global
North is London.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBxYC-qTIHEFYLVMSHYu-kqAbTCf0vUksJbD25VBPf_F805ER_XuV1ANauA6IRYEclZSFY6nhJlY_IPkqWLDcG15GR8BlpDr9bGXPDHx1oGkxiwmFxMtNtvWA_erbWFgcTEtgwpqdaOdM/s1600/Table+i.tiff" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1277" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBxYC-qTIHEFYLVMSHYu-kqAbTCf0vUksJbD25VBPf_F805ER_XuV1ANauA6IRYEclZSFY6nhJlY_IPkqWLDcG15GR8BlpDr9bGXPDHx1oGkxiwmFxMtNtvWA_erbWFgcTEtgwpqdaOdM/s640/Table+i.tiff" width="508" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3Ctef0oNLORSNyQqCGMi6xkSvb6eNopu2S-iKu6heeILNIiVH8BauH53ckQc7uL9wqRjFwOldRLvdIC-1WDy3iybUjkT2ok5Zcorz5yvD6vWHQ6HZcu1DOKUQKu_osbxOSGXN95NCvdk/s1600/Figure+ii.tif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1056" height="308" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3Ctef0oNLORSNyQqCGMi6xkSvb6eNopu2S-iKu6heeILNIiVH8BauH53ckQc7uL9wqRjFwOldRLvdIC-1WDy3iybUjkT2ok5Zcorz5yvD6vWHQ6HZcu1DOKUQKu_osbxOSGXN95NCvdk/s400/Figure+ii.tif" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure ii<br />
The world’s megacities in 2030</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />Structure of the book</span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The selection of megacities in this book
was based on the data from the World Urbanization Prospects: the 2014 Revision
(UNDESA 2015). A total of 41 metropolitans were projected to be megacities of
more than 10 million people in 2030 as presented in </span><b style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Table i</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> and </span><b style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Figure ii</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Twenty
seven out of 34 megacities of the Global South in the UNDESA Report are
discussed in this book by mostly non-Western scholars from the Global South.
This book consists of 7 parts and 29 chapters. Sao Paulo and Beijing are the
megacities discussed in two different chapters. In addition, Wuhan was not
listed in the UNDESA Report, but was included in this book. The projected
number of Wuhan’s population in 2030 was 9.44 million.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">While new megacities are forming across
the globe, the exact number often varies since different countries and
organizations have different definitions for a city or metropolitan. The
definition of a city by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) is based on functional economies or functional urban areas
(OECD 2015). Meanwhile, UNDESA uses administrative boundaries used by each
country. We will need to note such different definitions. For example, Jakarta
was not defined as a megacity by the UNDESA Report in 2000, but it has met the
definition of OECD. According to the UNDESA Report (UNDESA 2015), Jakarta’s
population in 2000 was 8.39 million. Using the definition of OECD, Jakarta’s
population in 2000 was 13.32 million including 8.39 million of the population
of the Province of Jakarta and 4.93 inner peripheries of Jakarta. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
inclusion of the inner peripheries of Jakarta refer to the functional urban
areas (FUAs) as defined by the OECD. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Most chapters of the book also discuss
further about the population size of their respective megacity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Routledge
Handbook of Planning Megacities in the Global South</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"> attempts to
identify challenges and best practices of planning from various focus of
analysis in as many megacities as possible in the Global South. Each chapter
will discuss a planning aspect in one megacity of the Global South. The contributors
start the chapter with an introductory narrative of their respective megacity
and continue with the focus on a planning aspect that stands out among other
aspects of planning in their megacity. The strength of the book is on the
variety of planning aspects discussed in those megacities of the Global South.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The book provides rigorous comparative
evidence of planning megacities of the Global South. The book discusses the
planning challenges, processes, and initiatives of 27 megacities in the Global
South. These megacities are located in all continents of the Global South
including Middle America (Mexico City), South America (Sao Paulo, Rio de
Jainero, Buenos Aires, and Bogota), Middle East (Cairo and Istanbul), Africa
(Lagos, Johannesburg, Dar es Salaam, and Luanda), South Asia (Delhi, Bangalore,
Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Dhaka, Lahore and Karachi), East Asia (Shanghai, Beijing,
Chongqing, Shenzhen, Chengdu, and Wuhan), and Southeast Asia (Jakarta, Bangkok
and Ho Chi Minh City). Each chapter explains the connection between its
substantive and thematic focus and the idea of planning for places.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The book is aimed to contribute to the
literature of international development and planning and to serve as a source
of information in graduate and undergraduate courses that focus on
international planning. This book is the first book on the subject of planning
megacities of the Global South. Surprisingly few books have cities of the
Global South as their focus of interest (Bhan, Srinivas and Watson 2017; Datta
and Shaban 2016; Miraftab and Kudva 2014; Parker 2015; Parnell and Oldfield
2014). None of those books discuss specifically planning megacities of the
Global South. This book will improve upon the competing titles because of the
focus of my book on planning and megacities. Miraftab and Kudva (2014) and
Parnell and Oldfield (2014) collect a long list of tcities of the Global South,
but their focus of discussion is not on planning. Datta and Shaban (2016) use a
few number of megacities in the Global South as the unit of analysis and
examine the challenges and contradictions of mega urbanization. Bhan, Srinivas and Watson (2017) is the
closest title to this book. Bhan, Srinivas and Watson (2017) is also an edited
collection on planning in the Global South, but their unit of analysis is not
megacities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part I – Managing
the urban growth<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The opening part of this book takes on the
examination of urban forms and urbanization in five megacities including Buenos
Aires, Ho Chi Minh City, Chongqing, Lahore and Bangalore. This part discusses
the challenges and initiatives from different continental perspectives in
managing the urban growth. Libertun examines the suburbs of Buenos Aires that
become a landscape of high social contrasts between affluent gated communities
and informal settlement. Libertun notes undergoing process of a third wave of
urban transformation through the upgrading and conversion of informal
settlement and housing complexes. Nguyen et al examine the most recent spurt of
urbanization through real estate maps in Ho Chi Minh City and offer suggestions
towards sustainable development. Roast focuses the analysis of Chongqing’s
urbanization since it was designated as a province-level municipality in 1997. Roast
notes that the attempt to stabilize the growth of the last two decades with the
creation of a stable property market in the suburbs and the reorganization of
land development corporations to control the rapid expansion of the urban
periphery. Javed critically examines the factors that shape the landscape of
Lahore including political power, economic and market forces and
ineffectiveness of institution. Javed argues that the city need to understand
those factors and create a more equitable and sustainable development. Ramachandra
and his team use simulation and modelling of the urban dynamics to understand
the trends of urbanization in Bangalore. They use the results to mitigate
uncontrolled and unrealistic Bangalore’s rapid urbanization. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part II – Shaping
the future: the legacy of spatial planning and master plans<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The second section of this book discusses
the processes and the role of spatial planning and master plans in shaping the
future of four megacities including Johannesburg, Dar es Salaam, Chengdu and
Wuhan. This section explores the evolution, challenges and key innovations of
spatial planning and master plans in those four megacities towards sustainable
cities. Harrison and Todes explore the evolution of strategic spatial planning
including key innovations, projects and challenges in Johannesburg. They note main
vehicle for strategic spatial planning is the use of spatial development
frameworks that advocate for compact, densify and restructure the city through
the use of an urban edge, corridors and nodes, inner city regeneration,
infrastructure and economic development in Johannesburg. Omunga critically
reviews plan-making, plan implementation and development strategies in Dar es
Salaam. Omunga examines the failures of the 1949, 1968 and 1979 Master Plans
and assess the ongoing development of Master Plan 2012-2032. Omunga notes that
land use, infrastructure and environmental planning are the key areaas for
creating a sustainable and more vibrant Dar es Salaam. Using the master plans
of Chengdu, Fang and Wu examine the power dynamics between local and central
government in shaping the future of the city. Zhu and Kung review the Wuhan
Master Plan 2016-2030 and other planning best practices in Wuhan and find some
approaches including the simulation using the economic-resource-environment
(ERE) system that could help Wuhan more sustainable and resilience. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part III –
Connecting the places: transportation and infrastructure challenges and strategies<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">This part of this book takes a critical
examination of transportation and infrastructure planning and development in
five megacities including Bogota, Beijing, and Sao Paulo. This part discusses
the role of transportation planning and transit development in the past and
future development of these megacities. Oviedo and Guzman critically examine the
evolution of the governance and regulatory framework of Bogotá in contrast with
the spatial and socioeconomic aspects at the larger metropolitan scale. They
note the role of transport and land use planning and governance in the future
of development in Bogota. Qi and Sun summarize and review the transit
development in the last few decades in Beijing and relate them with potential
impacts on workers’ commuting patterns. They note the importance of transit
development and social equity. Belik explores how people use and claim public
spaces through the deactivated Minhocao highway in Sao Paulo. She notes the
importance of how public spaces can be used democratically and encompass the
plurality of voices around them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part IV –
Confronting urban dualism in housing provision<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Megacities in the Global South are
increasingly emerging as cities of urban dualism and contradictions. The fourth
section of this book discusses the challenges and contradictions between real
estate development and informal settlements in five megacities including
Kolkata, Delhi, and Karachi. This section explores the apparent paradoxes that
currently characterize the residential areas of these three megacities. Sen and
Ghosh examine urban planning practices in Kolkata from the perspective of urban
duality and contradictions. They note that the fragmentation of urban landscape
in Kolkata into space of global culture and informal spaces of slums and
squatter settlements. Rishi and Syal critically examine the slums in Delhi and
note the importance of more nuanced, participatory, place-based understanding
of informal settlements before any planning intervention is executed. Shaheen
reviews intragovernmental differences in the political will and administrative
capacity to involve informal settlements. He notes that the foundation of
top-down policy development approach should be challenged. The lower tiers of
the state interactions with informal settlements must be established. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part V – Planning
for resilience <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The fifth part of this book takes on the
examination of resilience planning in four megacities including Istanbul,
Dhaka, Bangkok and Shenzhen. Many megacities are facing serious planning
challenges arising from their unique geographical locations and geology, rapid
urban growth rate, and historical development patterns. This part discusses the
challenges and initiatives for resilience planning to reduce and mitigate the
impacts of earthquakes, flood, and nonpoint source pollution. Dedekorkut and
her colleagues critically evaluate resilience planning to earthquakes in
Istanbul. They review the transformation of the comprehensive model risk
management system and the financed mega public infrastructure project. Ahmed
examines the needs for climate risk management and resilience at urban and
regional scale in Dhaka. He notes that Dhaka could prevent catastrophic human
disaster and be more livable with resilience and development interventions. Wijaya
discusses the status of development policy related to potentially
climate-related disasters and its approach to mainstream climate resilience in
urban development planning in Bangkok. He notes that it’s important to
recognize climatic variability and changes by adjusting to the consequences of
climate change. Liu et al critically review the master plan of the sponge city
construction in Shenzhen. They note the challenges and uncertainties of future
development and innovative measures to address the water pollution in Shenzhen.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part VI –
Democratizing planning processes<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The sixth section of this book discusses
the participatory planning practices in four megacities including Sao Paulo,
Mexico City, Beijing and Jakarta. This section takes on the examination of
planning process democratization in various settings including public hearings,
local planning workshops, street vending, regulatory detailed plans and flood
mitigation efforts. This section explores how these planning processes can be
recast in the legitimate political action within urban politics. Torres
explores how planning become an instrument of power and domination in Sao
Paulo. Torres focuses on how argumentations deployed with the objective of
disrupting people’s autonomous reflection capture people’s attention to public
issues. Schmidt and Mueller critically the emergence of participatory budgeting
in Mexico City. They note that participatory budgeting tends to omit the
important role by local discourse in defining problematics and the potential
solutions. Zhang critically examines the public participation requirements for
changing the decision making process through development control and regulatory
detailed plan in Beijing. Zhang notes that public participation is embedded
into the original development control system rather than subverting it. Rukmana
and his coauthor examine the extent to which rapid urbanization in Jakarta and
its peripheries has contributed to the annual flooding and how the various
flood management infrastructure developments have not addressed flooding in
Jakarta. They note that the participation of affected residents is a key to
sustainable and resilient solutions to annual flooding in Jakarta. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Part VII –
Planning megacities in the Global South: challenges, reconfigurations and
initiatives<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The concluding part of this book collects
the best practices and challenges of planning practices in six megacities
including Cairo, Rio de Jainero, Ahmadabad, Shanghai, Lagos and Luanda. This
part explores how these megacities manage and address rapid urban growth, mega
events, infrastructure development projects, resettlement neighborhoods, and modernization.
Ali critically examines how Cairo’s planning initiatives to address the rapid
expansion of informal settlements on valuable farmland. Ali notes that the
government should direct its limited resources toward upgrading informal
settlements and revitalizing existing communities. Friendly reviews planning
reconfigurations as a result of a series of mega-events including the 2014
World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Jainero. She notes a range of
dilemma created by the successive mega-events and the future of possibilities
for planning in the post mega-events. Mittal and Byahut examines five planning
initiatives and best practices in Ahmadabad as this city has emerged as a role
model for other Indian cities. They note the importance of planners’ reliance
on participatory and collaborative planning approaches and the role of
community engagement and advocacy planning in involving marginalized groups.
Zhang and Qian critically examines land expropriation-induced resettlement as a
tool for accommodating urban transformation and outward expansion. They note
that urban planners should reassess current resettlement policies that
prioritize the compensation and relocation process while neglect villagers’
adaptive resilience and life transition challenges. Urban planners should incorporate
cultural perspectives in governing land expropriation-induced resettlement
neighborhoods. Abubakar and his colleagues critically review key urban planning
challenges in Lagos. They examine how spatial plans and other planning
initiatives in Lagos can effectively be implemented to address rapid
urbanization. They note that facilitating public access to data, budgetary
allocation with judicious use of resources, decentralization of planning
activities, transparency, and increased public involvement in the planning
process are some of the key tools for fostering urban sustainability in Lagos. In
the last chapter, Milherio reviews the dysfunctionalities of Luanda’s
modernization and focuses on infrastructures inherited from the colonial period
and the consequences of urban segregation. Milherio notes that the dynamics of
the formal city are a direct result of modernization and colonization in
Luanda. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">References<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Beirle, S., Boersma, K. F., Platt,
U., Lawrence, M. G., & Wagner, T. (2011). Megacity emissions and lifetimes
of nitrogen oxides probed from space. Science, 333(6050), 1737-1739.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Bhan, G., Srinivas, S., &
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Datta, A., & Shaban, A. (Eds.).
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Kraas, F. (2007). Megacities and
global change: key priorities. <i>Geographical
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Miraftab, F., & Kudva, N.
(Eds.). (2014). <i>Cities of the Global
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">OECD. 2015. OECD Urban Policy
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Parker, S. (2015). The Majority
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">United Nations, Department of
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-63024378430676857982019-05-07T18:05:00.000-05:002020-07-11T13:02:27.178-05:00A Review of Jakarta: The Indonesia's Primate City<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Indonesian President Joko Widodo announced his plan to move
the capital of Indonesia out of Jakarta after a cabinet meeting on Monday,
April 29, 2019. One of the reasons of the plan is Jakarta is considered too crowded and congested. This post will
review Jakarta as the Indonesia’s primate city. Primate city is defined as a
city that dominates the urban system in the region. Jakarta as the Indonesia’s
primate city is not merely the largest city in Indonesia; it is more than twice
as large as the Indonesia’s second largest city. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
The <span style="background: white; color: #333333;">metropolitan region of Jakarta is home to more
than 30 million. The metropolitan region called <i>Jabodetabek </i>includes the
core (the capital city of Jakarta), the inner peripheries (City of Tangerang,
City of South Tangerang, City of Depok, City of Bekasi), and the outer
peripheries (City of Bogor, Tangerang Regency and Bekasi Regency) as shown in the map below.</span><o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="background: white; color: #333333;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtkhrVjsvhw41vXd0CstD07V9C1ptMM1QKYHRHt6Qv-6DvnzHXQk0dZWPFzTrbDaRtZU7j5cq8GAK8-94Gc-lMkJhl6Ic9-llEiOp7AKaNGFUxxHgtCXyDVZvgaX-rzHgjTWLX1c930YE/s1600/Orientation+map+JKT.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1056" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtkhrVjsvhw41vXd0CstD07V9C1ptMM1QKYHRHt6Qv-6DvnzHXQk0dZWPFzTrbDaRtZU7j5cq8GAK8-94Gc-lMkJhl6Ic9-llEiOp7AKaNGFUxxHgtCXyDVZvgaX-rzHgjTWLX1c930YE/s400/Orientation+map+JKT.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Map of the Metropolitan Region of Jakarta</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<b style="color: #333333;">Table 1</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"> below shows
the population of the metropolitan region of Jakarta from 1980 to 2015. All
data come from the population censuses, except data in 2015 from the
intercensal survey of Indonesia (SUPAS). The Jakarta metropolitan increased from 11.91 million in 1980, 17.14 million in 1990, 20.63 million in
2000 and 28.01 million in 2010 to 31.62 million in 2015. The Jakarta metropolitan in 2015 was
12.39 percent of Indonesia’s total population but this population resides in
less than 0.3 percent of Indonesia’s total area. The proportions of
Jabodetabek’s population to the total population of Indonesia have steadily
increased from 8.07%, 9.56%, 10.0% to 11.79% (in 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010
respectively). I predict the number will continue to increase as Jakarta will
stay as the Indonesia's primate city. </span><span style="background: white; color: #333333;"></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"></span>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Table 1</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Population of the
Metropolitan Region of Jakarta in 1980-2015</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">(in millions)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 546px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Area</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1980</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1990</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2000</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2010</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2015</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Core</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">6.5</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.26</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.39</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">9.6</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">10.17</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Jakarta</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">6.5</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.26</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.39</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">9.6</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">10.17</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Inner peripheries</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">4.93</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">7.22</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.36</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of Tangerang</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.33</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.8</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.04</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of South
Tangerang</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.8</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.29</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.53</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of Depok</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.14</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.75</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.09</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of Bekasi</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.66</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.38</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.7</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Outer peripheries</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">5.41</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.88</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">7.31</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">11.2</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">13.09</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of Bogor</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.25</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.27</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.75</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.95</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.04</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Tangerang Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.53</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.77</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.02</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.84</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.36</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Bekasi Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.14</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.1</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.62</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.63</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.23</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Bogor Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.49</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.74</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.92</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">4.78</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">5.46</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Metropolitan region of Jakarta</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">11.91</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">17.14</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">20.63</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">28.02</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">31.62</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">Source: Rukmana, et al (2018), SUPAS 2015</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The following section analyzes
the urban primacy in Indonesia. Urban primacy indicates the ratio of the
primate city to the second largest city in the country. This post will also
extend the urban primacy to the third largest city. The second largest Indonesian
city is Surabaya. The metropolitan region of Surabaya popularly known as <i>Gerbangkertosusila</i> has retained as Indonesia’s
second largest city to Jakarta for more than four decades. <b>Table 2 </b>below shows the population of the metropolitan region of
Surabaya from 1980 to 2015. The Surabaya metropolitan region includes the core
(City of Surabaya), the inner peripheries (Sidoarjo Regency and Gresik
Regency), and the outer peripheries (Mojokerto Regency, Lamongan Regency,
Bangkalan Regency, and City of Mojokerto). <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The <i>Gerbangkertosusila</i>’s population
increased from 6.107 million in 1980, 7.233 million in 1990, 8.168 million in
2000 and 9.137 million in 2010 to 9.551 million in 2015. The areas experienced
the highest population growth in the past ten years is the inner peripheries. The
population of inner peripheries surpassed the City of Surabaya’s population in
2010 and surpassed the population of outer peripheries in 2015. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">Table
2</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Population of the
Metropolitan Region of Surabaya in 1980-2015</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">(in millions)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 549px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Area</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1980</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1990</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2000</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2010</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2015</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Core</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.017<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.473<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.599<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.771<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.843<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of Surabaya</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.017<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.473<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.599<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.771<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.843<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Inner peripheries</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.581<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.025<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.568<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.129<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.368<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Sidoarjo Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.853<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.167<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.563<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.949<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.114<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Gresik Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.728<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.858<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.005<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.180<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.254<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Outer peripheries</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.509<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.735<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.001<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.237<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.340<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Mojokerto Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.705<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.788<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.908<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.028<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.078<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Lamongan Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.049<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.100<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.181<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.180<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1.185<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Bangkalan Regency</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.687<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.751<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.804<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.909<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.952<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"> City of Mojokerto</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.068<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.096<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.108<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.120<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">0.125<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-row-margin-right: 2.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 169.75pt;" width="226"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Gerbangkertosusila</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">6.107<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">7.233<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">8.168<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">9.137<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 47.95pt;" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">9.551<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="3"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td colspan="7" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 410.0pt;" width="547"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Source:
BPS 2010, SUPAS 2015</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 547px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The third largest Indonesian
city is Bandung. The metropolitan region of Bandung is popularly known as <i>Bandung Raya</i>. <b>Table 3 </b>below shows the population of the metropolitan region of Bandung
from 1980 to 2015. The Bandung metropolitan region includes the core (the
City of Bandung) and the peripheries (Bandung Regency, West Bandung Regency and
the City of Cimahi). West Bandung Regency was founded in 2007 when it seceded
from Bandung Regency. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The <i>Bandung Raya</i>’s population increased
from 4.13 million in 1980, 5.239 million in 1990, 6.293 million in 2000 and 7.623
million in 2010 to 8.22 million in 2015. The peripheries of the Bandung
metropolitan area have experienced a higher population growth than the core since
2000. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td colspan="7" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 410.0pt;" width="547"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Table 3</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Population of the
Metropolitan Region of Bandung in 1980-2015</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">(in millions)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
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<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
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<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td colspan="7" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 410.0pt;" width="547"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 547px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Area<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1990<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2010<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2015<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">City of Bandung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">1.461<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.058<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.136<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.394<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.48<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Bandung Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.669<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.201<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.47<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.178<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.528<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">West Bandung Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">1.245<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">1.51<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">1.627<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">City of Cimahi <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">0.442<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">0.541<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">0.585<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Great Bandung region<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">4.130<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">5.259<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">6.293<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">7.623<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">8.220<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
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</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;"><br />
</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Source: BPS (2010), SUPAS 2015</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Table 4</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">
shows the ratios of the population of Jakarta (the core only and the core and peripheries)
to the populations of Surabaya and Bandung from 1980 to 2015. The dominance of
Jakarta to the second and third Indonesia’s largest cities has been increasing from
1980 to 2015. The ratio of Jakarta metropolitan areas (the core and peripheries)
to Surabaya steadily increased from 2.0 in 1980 to 3.3 in 2015. Similarly, the
ratio of Jakarta metropolitan areas (the core and peripheries) to Bandung gradually
increased from 2.9 in 1980 to 3.8 in 2015. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 549px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 410.0pt;" width="547"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Table 4</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Urban Primacy of Indonesia’s
Three Largest Cities in 1980-2015</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">(in millions)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 410.0pt;" width="547"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 547px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">Area<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">1990<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2010<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2015<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Core only<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"> Jakarta to Surabaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"> Jakarta to Bandung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">4.4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">4.0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">4.0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">4.1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Core and Peripheries<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"> Jakarta to Surabaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">2.4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 170.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="227"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"> Jakarta to Bandung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">2.9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">3.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">3.8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: .3pt;" width="0"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The ratio of the
population of Jakarta to the city of Surabaya’s population has increased from
3.2 in 1980 to 3.6 in 2015. There was a slightly ratio decrease from 3.3 in
1990 to 3.2 in 2000 due to the relocation of Jakarta residents from the city
center to the peripheries during 1990s. In the meantime, the ratio of the
population of Jakarta to the population of the city of Bandung decreased from 4.4
in 1980 to 3.9 in 2000 and it has increased again to 4.0 in 2010 and 4.1 in 2015.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jakarta remains as the Indonesia’s primate city. The
dominance of Jakarta has been increasing since 1980. The ratio of the
population of Jakarta metropolitan area to the total population of Indonesia has
steadily increased from 8.07% (1980), 9.56% (1990), 10.0% (2000) to 11.79% (2010)
and 12.39% in 2015. The dominance of Jakarta has also been increasing to the
second and third Indonesia’s largest cities (Surabaya and Bandung) from 1980 to
2015. Jakarta’s dominance will continue to increase and the capital city will remain the Indonesia’s primate city for many years to come.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Reference:</span></b><br />
<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;">BPS (2010). Sensus Penduduk Indonesia</span></li>
<li>BPS (2015). Survey Penduduk Antar Sensus</li>
<li>Rukmana, Deden, Fikri Zul Fahmi, and Tommy Firman.
(2018). Suburbanization in Asia: A focus on Jakarta. The Routledge Companion to
the Suburbs. Bernadette Hanlon and Thomas J. Vicino (Eds.) New York, NY:
Routledge. pp. 110-120</li>
</ol>
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-2163187834079958602018-11-17T12:32:00.002-05:002020-07-11T13:40:21.045-05:00Suburbanization in Asia: A focus in Jakarta<i><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">This post is one of the chapters in the book titled "The Routledge Companion to the Suburbs" edited by Bernadette Hanlon and Thomas J. Vicino. The book was published by the Routledge in September 2018. You can find the book in the Routledge <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Companion-to-the-Suburbs/Hanlon-Vicino/p/book/9781138290235" target="_blank">link here</a>. The chapter on Jakarta was written by Fikri Zul Fahmi, Tommy Firman and myself. Tommy Firman is professor of Regional Planning at </span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">the Bandung Institute of Technology and Fikri Zul Fahmi is assistant professor of Urban an</span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">d Regional Planning at the Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia.</span></i><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Suburbanization in Asia: A focus in Jakarta</span></b></div>
<div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 115%;">By Deden Rukmana, Fikri Zul Fahmi and
Tommy Firman<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 42.55pt; margin-top: 0in;">
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader" style="text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jakarta is the capital of Indonesia and the
largest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia with tremendous population growth,
land use change and new town and industrial estate development. The overall
population of the Jakarta region grew in the 20th Century, from about 150,000
in 1900 to about 30 million in 2014. The metropolitan region of Jakarta is also
called <i>Jabodetabek, taken</i> from the
initial letters of the administrative units of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang
and Bekasi. The center of Jabodetabek is
Jakarta, also called the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (<i>Daerah Khusus Ibukota</i> Jakarta) and
covers a total area of 664 square kilometers. The inner peripheries of the metropolitan
region of Jakarta include four municipalities (City of Tangerang, City of South
Tangerang, City of Depok, City of Bekasi), whereas the outer peripheries of
Jabodetabek include the City of Bogor, Tangerang Regency and Bekasi Regency. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The metropolitan region of
Jakarta covers a total area of 5,897 square kilometers (Hudalah and Firman 20011).
</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader" style="text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Jakarta, or the Special Capital Region of
Jakarta, has ‘provincial government level’ status. The peripheries of
Jabodetabek are within the jurisdiction of two provinces. The City of Bogor, City of Depok, City of Bekasi
and Bekasi Regency are within the jurisdiction of West Java Province, whereas
the City of Tangerang, City of South Tangerang and Tangerang Regency are within
the jurisdiction of Banten Province. The four municipalities within the inner
peripheries of Jabodetabek are new municipalities founded in the 1990s and
2000s. The City of Tangerang, City of Bekasi, City of Depok and City of South
Tangerang were founded in 1993, 1996, 1999 and 2008 respectively. The City of
Tangerang and City of South Tangerang seceded from Tangerang Regency.
Meanwhile, the City of Depok was part of Bogor Regency and the City of Bekasi
seceded from Bekasi Regency. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">This chapter will examine
the extent to which the Jakarta region has transformed from a concentric and
radial pattern urban structure to an early stage of post-suburbanization with
an emerging fragmented structure of peripheral areas. The evolution of new
towns and industrial estates in the peripheries of the Jakarta region will be
discussed. The chapter will focus on the nature of suburban growth in the
Jakarta region and the policies and plans to contain or influence patterns of
the suburbanization. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Population Growth of the Metropolitan Region of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Jakarta
has been the capital of Indonesia since the Dutch colonial era. The population
of Jakarta in 1900 was about 115,000. In the first nationwide census of the
Dutch colonial administration (1930), Jakarta’s population increased to
409,475. In the next ten years, the population increased to 544,823 with an
annual growth rate of 3.30%. After Independence, Jakarta increased by nearly
three times to 1.43 million by 1950. It increased to 2.91 million in 1960 and
4.47 million in 1970. The annual growth rates of Jakarta’s population are
10.35% and 5.36% (1950-1960 and 1960-1970 respectively). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> <b>Table
1</b> shows the population of the metropolitan region of Jakarta including
Jakarta, the inner and outer peripheries of Jakarta, from 1980 to 2010. The
Megacity of Jakarta increased from 11.91 million in 1980, 17.14 million in
1990, and 20.63 million in 2000 to 28.01 million in 2010. The megacity in 2010
was 11.79 percent of Indonesia’s total population but this population resides
in less than 0.3 percent of Indonesia’s total area. The proportions of
Jabodetabek’s population to the total population of Indonesia have steadily
increased from 8.07%, 9.56%, to 10.0% (in 1980, 1990, and 2000
respectively). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Table 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Population of the Metropolitan
Region of Jakarta in 1980-2010<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">(in millions)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 431px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Area<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1990<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Core </span></i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Inner peripheries<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">4.93<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">7.22<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.33<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of South Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.29<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Depok<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Bekasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.66<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.38<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Outer peripheries <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">5.41<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.88<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">7.31<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">11.20<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Bogor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.27<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.95<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Tangerang Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.53<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.77<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.84<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Bekasi Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.62<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Bogor Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.49<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">3.74<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.92<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">4.78<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Megacity of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">11.91<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">17.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">20.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">28.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Sources: Rukmana
(2014)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Transformation
of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The modern city of
Jakarta was initiated by President Soekarno’s strong vision to build Jakarta
into the greatest city possible (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). He gave Jakarta,
Monas – his most symbolic new structure the 132 m high national monument,
spacious new government buildings, department stores, shopping plazas, hotels,
the sport facilities of Senayan that were used for the 1962 Asian Games, the
biggest and most glorious mosque of Istiqlal, new parliament buildings and the
waterfront recreation area at Ancol. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Such constructions
continued under the New Order regime that began in 1967. Under this regime,
Indonesia enjoyed steady economic growth, along with a reduction in the
percentage of the population living under the poverty line. Jakarta grew
rapidly during this period of the New Order regime. The investment in the
property sector, including offices, commercial buildings, new town development,
and highrise apartments and hotels grew substantially. Jakarta, by the
mid-1990s, was heading towards global city status. Jakarta was the largest
concentration of foreign and domestic investment in Indonesia and received US$
32.5 billion and Rp. 68,500 billion from foreign and domestic investment
respectively during the period of January 1967-March 1998 (Firman 1999).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In the early
administration of the New Order regime, some projects were completed, including
the Ismail Marzuki Arts Center, industrial zones at Tanjung Priok and Pulo
Gadung, that aimed to attract foreign investment, plus the unique theme park of
Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. During the thirty-two years of the New Order
regime, Jakarta changed considerably. A generally rapid economic growth during
this period allowed Jakarta to expand its modern constructions and develop into
a modern city. Hundreds of new office towers, hotels and high-rise condominiums
were built in many parts of the city.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The Golden Triangle – a
new style commercial zone - was built in Thamrin-Sudirman corridor to push the
urban skyline upward in response to high land costs in key areas and the
convenience of the automobile (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). This zone aimed to
accommodate internationally invested highrise mega-blocks; a result of the
regional competition among “global cities” (Firman, 1998; Goldblum and Wong,
2000). Jakarta is linked with other “global cities” in a functional system
built around telecommunications, transportation, services and finance. A parade
of tall buildings, one after the other filled the major streets on both sides.
They</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">housed the offices of Indonesian and multi-national
corporations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh95ILTSVPj1eWuAOhWKMavkPp3647LBIktpR3BxnXSg6Pmy92tMVeVNpfDX9bMJHFcVD7b5miRiur9dxARnsg7TlW7J0BgkNyiw8yB4jvq2keqeAbbWaYUWoTxdI4UGXertI-1sBwwfBk/s1600/Skyline+Jakarta+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh95ILTSVPj1eWuAOhWKMavkPp3647LBIktpR3BxnXSg6Pmy92tMVeVNpfDX9bMJHFcVD7b5miRiur9dxARnsg7TlW7J0BgkNyiw8yB4jvq2keqeAbbWaYUWoTxdI4UGXertI-1sBwwfBk/s400/Skyline+Jakarta+2014.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">The economy crisis
which hit Indonesia in 1998 resulted in major disruptions of the urban
development in Jakarta. Such monstrous crisis shifted Jakarta from “global
city” to “city of crisis”. The crisis – commonly known in Indonesia as krismon
- largely squeezed the economy of Jakarta. In order to survive the krismon, a
large number of workers shifted to become food traders or then engaged in other
informal sector jobs. Street vendors –commonly known in Indonesia as pedagang
kaki lima- increased rapidly from about 95,000 in 1997 to 270,000 in 1999
(Firman, 1999).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">This shrinkage of
economic activities resulted in the decrease of office space demand which
dropped from 300,000 square meters in 1997 to 85,000 square meters in 1999. Similarly,
the demand for high-class apartments dropped from 49,000 in December 1997, to
16,000 in February 1998. The housing market in the megacity nearly collapsed
due to increasing costs of building materials and higher housing loan interest
rates. Most construction projects in the periphery of Jakarta slowed down or
even completely stopped (Firman, 2004).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In order to mitigate the
impact of the krismon, in July 1998 the government along with the assistance of
IMF launched a variety of social safety net programs. Political and economic
reforms were also implemented during the recovery process. Civil unrest and
political uncertainty heightened during the krismon gradually lowered during
the recovery process. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">As of early 2005,
Indonesia’s economic performance was more positive. The rate of economic growth
of Indonesia was 5.73% per year over the period of 2004-2008. The positive
Indonesia’s economic growth resulted in an increased number of construction
projects in Jakarta including malls, apartments and office buildings. Winarso
(2010) reported twelve malls and shopping centers in Jakarta built between 2004
and 2006 including Pondok Indah Mall, Jakarta City Center, Senayan City, Cityloft
Retail, Grand Indonesia, Pacific Place, Pasar Senen, Plaza Indonesia, Blok M
Square, Shopping Center Gandaria, Kemang Village and Kota Casablanca. The land
area of malls in Jakarta increased from 1.7 million square meters in 2000 to
4.8 million square meters in 2009 (Suryadjaja 2012). Another seven malls were
built between 2013 and 2016 including Cipinang Indah Mall, The Baywalk Green
Bay Pluit, St. Moritz, Mall at the City Centre, The Gateway, Pantai Indah Kapuk
Mall and Pondok Indah Mall 3. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Jakarta has held strong
domination in Indonesia’s economy since the colonial era (Salim and Kombaitan
2009). Jakarta has been the most attractive area for both domestic and foreign
investments in Indonesia. Nearly one-fourth of total approved foreign investment
in Indonesia over the period of 2000-2005 was in Jakarta due to Jakarta’s high
concentration of skilled labor and entrepreneurs (Firman 2008). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Jakarta's contribution
to Indonesia's GDP in 2010 increased to 16.7% from 14.9% in 2000. The staggering
Jakarta's contribution to Indonesia's economy was primarily caused by the
dominance of Jakarta in the financial and business sector. The high economic
growth of Jakarta also pulled more people to move to Jakarta. Kenichiro (2015)
identified that coming back to the city as a new trend after the krismon. Such
a trend was indicated by the population growth of Jakarta over the period of
2000-2010 that was higher than that of the period of 1990-2000. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Since 2005, Jakarta
witnessed the construction of luxury high-rise apartments in many parts of
Jakarta. The investors of luxury high-rise apartments also came from several
Asian countries including China, Singapore, Hongkong and Japan (Colliers International
2017). The cumulative supply of luxury apartments in Jakarta reached more than
100,000 units by 2012 (Kenichiro 2015). The luxury apartment market in Jakarta
has been strong in the last decade. In the first four months of 2017 alone, a
total of 2,790 units of luxury high-rise apartments have been completed in
three projects including Nerine Tower, Elpis Residence and Paradise Mansion
(Colliers International 2017). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">According to the
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Jakarta has a total of 377 tall
buildings with the minimum height of 100 meters by 2017. Jakarta ranks twelfth
among cities in the world for the number of tall buildings (CTBUH 2017). Jakarta
has a strong trend for vertical urbanism marked by the construction of numerous
high-rise buildings (Alexander et al 2016). A total of 66 high-rise buildings
are still under construction and being proposed in Jakarta including the
Signature Tower that will become the Jakarta’s tallest building in 2022. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Jakarta has experienced
a tremendous population growth and faced a wide range of urban problems in the
last few decades. Two major problems of Jakarta are traffic congestions and
floods. The urbanization and suburbanization in Jakarta are strongly associated
with the traffic congestion in Jakarta. Jakarta is estimated to lose US$3.5
billion a year because of traffic congestion which can’t be separated from the
high growth rate of vehicle ownership (Wismadi et al 2013). Jakarta heavily
relies on road transportation and about 80% of trips made by private vehicles
(Sugiarto et al 2015).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">According to the
Jakarta’s Bureau of Statistics (2016), nearly three quarter (74.66%) of
vehicles in Jakarta in 2014 was motorcycles. The number of motorcycles
increased at a rate of 13.35% per year from 6.76 million in 2008 to 13.08
million in 2014. The number of passenger cars increased at a rate of 8.65% per
year from 2.03 million in 2008 to 3.27 million in 2014. Over the same period,
the total road length in Jakarta increased at a rate of 0.90% per year. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Several programs have
been implemented to alleviate the acute traffic congestions in Jakarta
including the expansion of inner-city toll road and the development of Bus Rapid
Transit (BRT) and Mass Rapid Transit (MRT). The total length of inner-city toll
road in Jakarta increased from 112.9 kilometers in 2008 to 123.73 kilometers in
2014. The BRT or popularly known as TransJakarta was introduced in 2004 and the
service of TransJakarta had been expanded to 12 corridors with a total of 669
buses by 2014. The total number of passengers of the bus rapid transit in 2014 was
111.6 million.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"> For at least 20 years, the proposed MRT has
been under discussion by the Jakarta administration and the government of
Indonesia. Activists and non-governmental watchdogs have seen the MRT proposal
as a possible bonanza for corrupt politicians and contractors. Eventually, the
government secured a $1.6 billion loan agreement with the Japanese
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 2009 for funding. The construction
of the MRT project began on October 10, 2013. The first MRT tract will connect
Lebak Bulus, South Jakarta and the Hotel Indonesia traffic circle with six
underground stations, seven elevated stations and a capacity of 173,000
passengers per day (Rukmana 2014). By June 30, 2017, the completion of the MRT
first tract was nearly 75 percent. The Jakarta city administration expected to
launch the service of MRT to the public for trial purposes in August 2018.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Jakarta lies in a
lowland area with 13 rivers. All tributaries and basin areas of these 13 rivers
are located in the peripheries of the megacity, strongly associated with the
floods in Jakarta. Industrial parks and new towns were built in the peripheries
of Jakarta and many of them have converted water catchment areas, green areas
and wetlands. Such land conversions have affected the severity of flooding in
Jakarta. Floods have become a threat and bring increasing woes for Jakarta
residents every year.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Flooding has had
critical impact on the infrastructure and population of Jakarta. In 2008,
floods inundated most parts of Jakarta including the Sedyatmo toll road; and
nearly 1,000 flights in the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport were delayed
or diverted while 259 were cancelled. In 2012, floods submerged hundreds of
homes along major Jakarta waterways, including the Ciliwung, Pesanggrahan,
Angke and Krukut rivers, and displaced 2,430 people. In January 2013, many
parts of Jakarta were inundated following heavy rain; and, as reported by the
National Disaster Mitigation Agency (BNPB), the ensuing floods killed at least
20 people and sent at least 33,502 fleeing their homes (Rukmana 2014)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In the aftermath of
these annual floods, the government normally attempts to dredge the rivers and
release floodwater as quickly as possible into the sea via the East Flood
Canal. Construction of the East Flood Canal began in the aftermath of major
floods in 2002, and reached the sea on December 31, 2009 after very slow progress
due to the complicated land acquisitions. The East Flood Canal has been
considered the most feasible means to prevent future flooding in Jakarta, but
clearly cannot prevent flooding entirely.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">New
Towns and Industrial Estates in the Suburbs of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In order to understand
the suburbanization in the metropolitan region of Jakarta, it is essential to
recognize the socio-economic dualism pervading Indonesian urban society. The
manifestations of this dualism are the presence of the modern city and the kampung
city in urban areas. The kampung, ‘village’ in Indonesian, is associated with
informality, poverty, and the retention of rural traditions within an urban
setting. Firman (1999) argues the existence of kampungs and modern cities
reflect spatial segregation and socio-economic disparities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">The growing numbers of
migrants to Jakarta and poor Jakarta natives have produced new squatter
kampungs on the periphery of Jakarta (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). Many
constructions in the central city also caused some residents of kampungs to be
evicted and relocated to the periphery (Silver, 2007). The periphery also
attracted migrants because of its improved infrastructures and facilities in
(Goldblum and Wong, 2000). Since 1950, Jakarta has attracted people from all parts
of Java and other Indonesian islands. The flood of migrants came to Jakarta for
economic reasons as Jakarta offered the hope of employment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Starting in the early
1980s, agricultural areas and forests in the suburbs of Jakarta were converted
massively into large-scale subdivisions and new towns (Silver 2008). Over the
period of 1990 and 2010, more than 30 new large new towns were built in the
suburbs of Jakarta ranging from 500 hectares to 30,000 hectares. They converted
more thousands hectares of rural land (Firman 2014; Winarso and Firman 2002)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The massive development
in the suburbs of Jakarta was a result of a series of deregulation and
de-bureaucratization measures enacted by the Suharto government in the 1980s
(Winarso and Firman 2002). The subsidized housing finance program and municipal
permit system for land development also contributed to the massive development
in the area. These policies have most benefited some developers that were
strongly linked with the New Order regime (Leaf, 1994).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The residential enclave
for narrowly targeted moderate and high-income families characterized Jakarta’s
suburban area (Firman, 1998; Leaf, 1994). Located on the periphery of the city,
these settlements were built in automobile-accessible areas with various
high-quality amenities such as modern golf courses. High-income families in the
central city also moved from the city in search of better living quality
(Goldblum and Wong, 2000). The high cost of houses and the need for automobiles
restricted low-income families from the suburban housing market. One in five
families in Jakarta’s suburbs owned an automobile (Leaf, 1994). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The first new town in
the suburbs of Jakarta is a collaborative project of Bumi Serpong Damai in the
early 1980s. This first new town was planned for an eventual population of
600,000 in a total area of 6,000 hectares; a project developed by several
private developers and led by the largest private developer – the Ciputra
Group. Other new towns in the suburbs of Jakarta include Bukit Jonggol Asri, Bukit
Sentul, Pembangunan Jaya, Lippo City, Cikarang Baru, Tigaraksa, Kota Legenda,
Kota Cileungsi, Royal Sentul, Bintaro Jaya, Lido Lakes Resort, Gading Serpong,
Modernland, Kota Wisata Teluk Naga, Kota Modern, Kota Citra Raya and Alam
Sutera dan Kedaton (Firman 1998; Silver 2007; Winarso 2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">New towns in the
suburbs of Jakarta are aimed at middle-upper income groups (Goldblum and Wong
2000; Firman 2004). They are mostly furnished with golf courses, shopping
malls, cinemas, hospitals and hotels. The design of new towns was influenced by
American design concepts to offer luxury, secured and self-sufficient
neighborhoods and improved lifestyles. Many new towns also led to large scale
displacement of farmers and existing residents such as Tigaraksa that evicted
about 1,400 farmers (Firman 2004). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In a number of these
new towns, the State Housing Provider Agency (Perumnas) joined with private
developers to assure some housing was targeted for low and moderate-income
families (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). Most of the new towns offered relatively
few employment opportunities. Their initial concept was to create
self-contained communities but this was barely implemented. Instead, the new
towns became “bedroom suburbs for city-bound commuters” (Cybriwsky and Ford,
2001). The new towns were still heavily dependent on the central city (Firman,
1999; Silver 2007) and the development of large-scale housing projects
intensified the daily interaction between the fringe areas and the central city
of Jakarta. This worsened the traffic problems in metropolitan Jakarta. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhkNYc0w5140QyzRHjxS925WEwPpdf93Jpggmktd03KDcwmaCHhavX1BWJ5GQxVBjWYoGLoJU6zlgpZTv9nmLZ1WoBbw-iV0Q7wNTzqIRqk0TxWXAhS3Xnu8Ws00R6halnlX5pNd0CHG0/s1600/4329699094_4c8b7228cc_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="426" data-original-width="640" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhkNYc0w5140QyzRHjxS925WEwPpdf93Jpggmktd03KDcwmaCHhavX1BWJ5GQxVBjWYoGLoJU6zlgpZTv9nmLZ1WoBbw-iV0Q7wNTzqIRqk0TxWXAhS3Xnu8Ws00R6halnlX5pNd0CHG0/s400/4329699094_4c8b7228cc_z.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">People who live in the
outskirts of Jakarta can save as much as 30% of their transportation costs
using motorcycles to work rather than public transport. Motorcycles are
ubiquitous and can be acquired with a down payment of as little as $30. The
daily jams in Jakarta are getting worse; the peripheries are a “bedroom suburb”
for the daily commuters of Jakarta, the center of government and corporate
offices, commercial and entertainment enterprises. Commuters from the
peripheries primarily used three highways including the Jagorawi toll road
connecting Jakarta and the southern peripheries, the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road
connecting Jakarta and the eastern peripheries and the Jakarta-Merak toll road
connecting Jakarta and the western peripheries. The economy of Jakarta
dominates its peripheral areas. In the daytime, the total population in Jakarta
is much more than its population in the nighttime; the number of daily
commuters in Jakarta is estimated 5.4 million.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Winarso and Firman
(2002) revealed almost all large developers were well connected to the
President Suharto’s family and inner circle including his daughters, sons,
brother, in-laws and close friends. The connection to the Suharto family and
inner circle became significant; closeness to the first family helped the large
developers expand their business. Interlinking also occurred among the large
developers through cross-shareholding, shared directorships and joint ventures;
process which turned potential competitors into collaborators and created
oligopolistic types of land and housing markets.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In addition to
residential zones, the periphery of Jakarta is also made up of specialized
zones of commercial and industrial enterprises. These areas complement the
other districts of Jakarta: the central business districts on Thamrin-Sudirman
corridor, the government offices around Medan Merdeka, the international
seaport of Tanjung Priok, and the growing network of freeways. The development
of industrial zones in the peripheries of Jakarta also indicated a spatial
restructuring that shifted manufacturing from the central city to the
periphery. Firman (1998) reported that the central city attracted
disproportionate investment in service industries, trade and hotel, and
restaurant construction. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The peripheries
attracted most of the industrial construction; these include textiles, apparel,
footwear, plastics, chemicals, electronics, metal products and foods (Cybriwsky
and Ford, 2001). The total area of industrial estates in the suburbs of Jakarta
region increased from 11,000 hectares in 2005 to 18,000 hectares in 2010
(Firman 2014; Hudalah 2013). About 40% of the industrial estates in the region
were located in the district of Bekasi including seven large industrial
estates: Bekasi Fajar Industrial Estate, East Jakarta Industrial Park, Bekasi
International Industrial Estate, MM 2100 Industrial Estate, Jababeka, Lippo
Cikarang and Pembangunan Deltamas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Three industrial
estates in the district of Bekasi (Jababeka, Lippo Cikarang and Pembangunan
Deltamas) also integrated their industrial areas with residential and other
urban activities. They created towns rather than estates (Hudalah and Firman
2012). Jababeka also built an inland port named Cikarang Dry Port and opened it
in 2010. The Cikarang Dry Port offers a one stop service for cargo handling for
international export and import and domestic distribution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The large seven
industrial estates in the district of Bekasi is Indonesia’s largest industrial
concentration. They produced about 46% of the national non-oil and gas export
of USD 66.428 billion in 2005 (Hudalah and Firman 2012). The industrial
activities in the district of Bekasi also generated taxes for the central and
local governments as much as 3.4-6 trillion rupiahs in 2005. Nearly 10,000
expatriates also lived in the district of Bekasi in 2005 due to the industrial
activities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The development of
private industrial parks in the peripheries followed the development of the three
highways stretching from Jakarta to the peripheries - the Jagorawi toll road,
the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road, and the Jakarta-Merak toll road highways (Henderson
and Kuncoro 1996; Hudalah et al 2013).
Private industrial parks in the peripheries range from 50 to 1,800
hectares and on average the size is about 500 hectares (Hudalah et al 2013);
major industrial centers are located in Cikupa-Balaraja of Tangerang Regency
and Cikarang of Bekasi Regency. The industrial center of Cikarang with a total
industrial land area of nearly 6,000 hectares is the largest planned industrial
center in Southeast Asia (Hudalah and Firman 2012).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The industrial estate
in the suburbs of Jakarta region are becoming increasingly specialized and
intensifying the trend for the region to become more polycentric (Firman 2014;
Hudalah et al 2013). Each industrial estate built its own facilities and
infrastructure including roads, waste treatment plants and communication
network and resulted in a fragmented industrial complex (Hudalah et al 2013).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Post-suburbanization
of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Urban development in
metropolitan Jakarta has continued and expanded beyond the suburbs. Jabodetabek
fringe areas, that used to be ‘traditional’ dormitory towns, have transformed
into more independent areas with a strong economic base. Agricultural land in
these areas have converted into various urban land uses, including new town and
large-scale residential areas, industrial estates and shopping centers. The
core of the metropolitan region, Jakarta City, in contrast is experiencing low
population growth due to considerable population spillover to fringe areas.
While population growth in Jakarta City was 3.1% between 1980 and 1990, it was
only 1.5% between 2000 and 2010 (see also Table 1). As a result of new town and
industrial development in fringe areas, commuting is evident in Jabodetabek, in
which millions of people commute between the Jakarta City and the peripheral
areas daily by trains, buses and personal cars. Likewise, a number of the
Jakarta City inhabitants commute between the city and small and new towns in
the outskirts, including Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi, Depok and Jababeka, as they
work there but still live in Jakarta (Firman 2011).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzBm9-UeIGKcA6MmrEbv_JW9mtayPk8X7WMN7VUrK6If0KfrCvE6bZHdx4lRORWBBS92Tlhu3-K_qXtLTbwjPvzvkR6Uqyg2qSW7AyklEEsLi2nsmGyjGPy7vhYNjGs0MliVCj4Dwvrdw/s1600/IMG_8619.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzBm9-UeIGKcA6MmrEbv_JW9mtayPk8X7WMN7VUrK6If0KfrCvE6bZHdx4lRORWBBS92Tlhu3-K_qXtLTbwjPvzvkR6Uqyg2qSW7AyklEEsLi2nsmGyjGPy7vhYNjGs0MliVCj4Dwvrdw/s400/IMG_8619.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">As Firman and Fahmi
(2017) explain, recent Jabodetabek development reflects some signs of the early
stages of post-suburbanization. Post-suburban development in Jabodetabek is,
however, less likely to fully resemble that of Western cities (Feng et al.
2008) “because so many people choose to continue to live in the traditional
core and commute out to suburban developments for work, as well as other
activities” (Firman and Fahmi 2017, p. 77). Post-suburbanization in Jabodetabek
is triggered by privatization of land development and management particularly
in fringe areas. The private sector has gained stronger control over land, in
that it can aggressively acquire, develop and manage land in fringe areas, most
notably for residential and industrial activities. The prominent role of the
private sector in land development has indeed materialized for a long time.
Currently, the private sector plays a more significant role: it is able to
direct land development and manage the areas ‘exclusively’ by providing
municipal services traditionally delivered by local governments in the areas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The shift of power from
the public to the private sector in land development is strongly driven by
decentralization and its associated reforms in Indonesia. For the Jabodetabek
case, the central government still plays a strong role in suburban development,
in that many industrial activities in fringe areas are made possible by foreign
direct investments, which are subject to the central government’s
approval. On the other side, local
governments now have the authority to direct spatial plans and the development
in their areas, as well as to grant building permits to private developers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Industrial centers in
Jabodetabek are increasingly becoming diversified, so that fringe areas are
becoming a more polycentric and a fragmented industrial region (Hudalah et al.
2013). This development can be associated with the behavior of private
developers, both foreign and domestic origins, who seek economic benefits from
the ongoing industrialization processes as well as the pro-growth economic
policies of both central and local governments. The central government has
stimulated the development of industrial estates in fringe areas by subsidizing
the provision of infrastructure and other facilities built and managed by
‘licensed companies’ (Hudalah et al. 2013). According to Government Regulation
142/2015, the licensed companies, those holding permits from either central or
local government, have the exclusive right to develop and manage specific
industrial areas, provide and manage ongoing utilities and facilities
exclusively for the firms that locate in these areas. The license to develop
and manage industrial parks is to be granted by the local government where the
potential estates are located and by the provincial government if the potential
location extends into two or more municipalities/districts. If the potential
area extends over two or more bordering provinces, or if it is to be operated by
a foreign company, the developer must acquire additional permits from the
central government. After a private developer obtains the license to manage
industrial park, it has the exclusive authority to sell land units to other
companies that wish to start businesses inside the industrial estates. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The shift of power from
the public to the private sector is also reflected in new town development in
fringe areas. Private developers expansively build new town and large scale
residential projects in response to the local needs driven by economic growth
and diversification in fringe areas. They gain permits from the local
governments to design the new towns as gated suburban communities, which are
surrounded by walls and separated from nearby local communities (Leisch 2002).
Private developers not only provide infrastructure exclusive to the inhabitants
within the communities, but also administer municipal services as if they were
the ‘government’ in the communities. In so doing, they appoint their own ‘city’
managers to ensure service delivery and security of the area. Local governments
enable this development by granting building permits to private developers,
although these sometimes do not comply with the legalized spatial plans. For
example, new town projects are built on land that is supposed to be catchment
areas. The local autonomy rights given to the local governments have cultivated
a competitive climate, so that they are now eager to promote economic
development in their regions and exploit regional resources more intensively.
In many cases, economic growth is preferred over enforcing spatial plans
(Rukmana 2015). Decentralization has also intensified the practice of
‘clientelism’, or patronage relationships, between the local government and the
private sector (Rukmana 2015). Spatial plans are often prepared, and easily
altered, to accommodate the interest of developers rather than to plan for more
sustainable regions (Firman 2004, Rukmana 2015). Driven by political pressures
and interests in placing what are perceived to be profitable economic
activities, spatial plans are often negotiated and violated. This condition actually illustrates
contradictory facts. On the one hand, local governments have strong power to direct
local development and also to empower developers to perform their profit
seeking behaviors, although this violates the spatial plans (Cowherd 2005, Kenichiro
2015). On the other hand, this reflects the inadequacy of local government
capacity to enforce the legalized plans, as if they were ‘powerless’ when they
have to face the developers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The fact that the
private sector takes over some governmental tasks, on the one hand, can be seen
as an opportunity to fulfill the limited capacity of local governments to
provide basic services. On the other hand, the private sector focuses mainly on
making profits and often pays less attention to the spatial plans that aim at
creating sustainable cities and regions. As local governments have the
authority to direct local development and the central government has less power
to intervene it, the making and enforcement of spatial plans in Greater Jakarta
has been fragmented (see Kusno 2014). As such, recent post-suburbanization of
Jakarta reveals new, significant challenges in managing urban development and enforcing
spatial plans, which require innovative governance solutions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">This chapter has presented the transformation of Jakarta from a
concentric and radial pattern urban structure to an early stage of
post-suburbanization. Jakarta has been the national capital and the largest
city in Indonesia since the Dutch colonial era, although before Independence
Jakarta was relatively far smaller (under one million inhabitants). After
Independence, Jakarta started to grow beyond the city boundary and formed a
metropolitan region consisting of several administrative districts and
municipalities (Jabodetabek). In the New Order (1967-1998), as the country
enjoyed a rapid economic growth, Jakarta had a chance to </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">expand its constructions and develop into a modern
city. Further, the central government’s pro-growth economic policy at that time
supported big scale industrial activities in the peripheries of Greater
Jakarta. Although the monetary crisis made a development pause in the beginning
of the New Millennium, the development in Greater Jakarta has continued. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">The current development
indicates some signs of the early stages of post-suburbanization, in which the
traditional core remains preeminent, but </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">t</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">he peripheral areas have
become more independent satellite cities with strong economic base and
diversified activities. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">This development is triggered by </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">privatization
of land development and management particularly in fringe areas (Firman and
Fahmi 2017). The private sector has indeed played a crucial role in developing
industrial and large residential activities in fringe areas. However, it now
plays an even more significant role as it can direct land development and
manage the areas ‘exclusively’ by providing municipal services traditionally
delivered by local governments in the areas. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">As the result, regional development of
Greater Jakarta, which consists of several districts and municipalities, is
potentially even more fragmented and unsustainable. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">A forum, namely the Coordinating Body of Jabodetabek
Development, is supposed to integrate local government actions in managing the
development in the region. However, this body seems ineffective, as under the
Indonesian New Decentralization law the real authority of local development is
owned by the local government. This condition suggests that it is now crucial
to designate a form of Metropolitan Authority which works above the local
government level and is authorized to coordinate the development in the region.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
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Statistics of DKI Jakarta. Jakarta: BPS DKI Jakarta<o:p></o:p></div>
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Kenichiro, Arai. (2015). Jakarta “since yesterday”:
Making of the post-New Order Regime in an Indonesian Metropolis. <i>Southeast
Asian Studies </i>4(3): 445-486<o:p></o:p></div>
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Leaf, Michael. (1994). The suburbanization of Jakarta:
A concurrence of economics and ideology. <i>Third World Planning Review</i> 16(4):
341-356.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Rukmana, D., 2015. The Change and Transformation of
Indonesian Spatial Planning after Suharto’s New Order Regime: The Case of the
Jakarta Metropolitan Area. International Planning Studies, 20 (4), 350–370.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Rukmana, Deden. (2014). Peripheral Pressures: Jakarta. <i>Archeology
of the Periphery of Megacities. </i>Roger Connah (Ed.). Moscow: Strelka
Press. Pp. 158-167<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Salim, Wilmar, and Kombaitan, B. 2009. Jakarta: The
rise and challenge of a capital. City 13(1: 120-128<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Silver, Christopher. (2007). <i>Planning the
megacity: Jakarta in the twentieth century. </i>London and New York:
Routledge.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Sugiarto S, Tomio Miwa, Hitomi Sato and Takayuki
Morikawa. (2015). Use of latent variables representing psychological motivation
to explore psychological motivation citizens’ intentions with respect to
congestion charging reform in Jakarta. <i>Urban, Planning and Transport
Research.</i> DOI: 10.1080/21650020.2015.1037964<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Suryadjaja, R. (2012). Jakarta’s tourism evolution:
Shopping center as urban tourism. A presentation to the Fifth International
Forum on Urbanism, Barcelona 25-27 February.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Winarso, Haryo and Tommy Firman. (2002). Residential
land development in Jabotabek, Indonesia: triggering economic crisis? <i>Habitat
International </i>26: 487-506<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -22.3pt;">
Winarso, Haryo. (2010). Urban
Dualism in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area. <i>Megacities: Urban Form,
Governance, and Sustainability. </i>A. Sorensen and J. Okata (eds.).
Springer. Pp. 163-191<o:p></o:p></div>
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Wismadi, A., J. Soemardjito and
H. Sutomo (2013). 'Transport Situation in Jakarta'. in Kutanii. I. (Ed.). Study
on energy efficiency improvement in the transport sector through transport
improvement and smart community development in the urban area. ERIA Research
Project Report 2012-29, pp.29-58 <o:p></o:p></div>
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-54220477840769943542017-11-30T20:01:00.000-05:002017-12-30T12:46:46.299-05:00Upgrading Housing Settlement for Jakarta's Poor Residents<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
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<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The number of urban population in Indonesia increased
significantly from 101.3 million in 2000 to 137.6 million in 2015. This rapid
urbanization has caused many problems including the lack of housing for the
urban poor. Most poor residents of Indonesian major cities particularly Jakarta
live in informal housing settlements. They live in self-built inappropriate
houses and squatting in slums and squatter settlements. They are marginalized
urban residents that push their way to occupy state land such as disposal
sites, riverbanks, and railway tracks and private unoccupied land and illegally
construct their dwellings.</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL-9yAU98awrv6VtwWqSpirrstv89cqnG8GKhp2rr_5vy2JY9UrQrArfT6TQZE5dSJw9J1LZuTQqoWi3tOGWHQVEtZugHDoCUM0PYI42SFGTWYSIepJW8dY0ky_nLP7sIXultWbMAuvQs/s1600/Kampung+Deret+Petogogan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1064" data-original-width="1600" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL-9yAU98awrv6VtwWqSpirrstv89cqnG8GKhp2rr_5vy2JY9UrQrArfT6TQZE5dSJw9J1LZuTQqoWi3tOGWHQVEtZugHDoCUM0PYI42SFGTWYSIepJW8dY0ky_nLP7sIXultWbMAuvQs/s640/Kampung+Deret+Petogogan.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kampung Deret in Petogogan, South Jakarta</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Housing provision for the urban poor in informal
housing settlements is also one of many agendas for Jakarta Governor Anies
Baswedan. During his campaign, Anies said he would not evict the residents in
informal housing settlements and would instead build vertical and layered
housing (<i>rumah lapis</i>) for them on
their land. The idea of <i>rumah lapis </i>is
not a new idea in the literature of upgrading housing settlement for the urban
poor. To some extent, I would argue that the <i>Rumah Lapis </i>program is a replication of the <i>Kampung Deret </i>program that was initiated by then Jakarta Governor Joko
Widodo in October 2013. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The Kampung
Deret program replaced substandard, unsafe and unhealthy housing units in the
Jakarta’s informal housing settlements with permanent housing units. The
program gained considerable support from among the poor in Jakarta’s informal
housing settlements. The program built
nearly 4,500 permanent housing units for the urban poor in Jakarta in less than
a year. Despite the support from the Jakarta’s urban poor, the Jakarta
city administration discontinued the Kampung Deret program at the end of 2014,
citing the lack of financial support from the Jakarta city council and the
legal issue of the lands occupied by the urban poor. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The idea of <i>rumah
lapis </i>and <i>kampung deret </i>is rooted
from John Turner’s seminal book <i>Housing
by People: Towards Autonomy in Building Environments. </i>Turner (1977) argued<i> </i>that housing was not only a commodity
but also a process or activity and the establishment of desirable housing
standards was absurd. Slum clearance programs only moved substandard houses to
new places particularly the urban periphery <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
There was no need to demolish slums because they were
part of the solution. John Turner’s idea of “self-help” was used to implement
the strategy of upgrading for improving and consolidating the existing homes of
slum dwellers. He identified that perceived security of tenure would result in
the progressive upgrading of slums through individual and community self-help. In
situ upgrading represents an incremental improvement to the delivery of housing
(Mistro and Hensher 2009). In situ upgrading aims to minimize the number of
slum dwellers that are relocated to another site and it will reduce the extent
of disruption to social and economic networks of slum dwellers. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXxv1XNw77YmBXwbeX5wp4U-pS9_C5FJ7a9kn2-3m_Okey9kXudtRc2szLW3q1X5mvsm_9n5BNsKf6xzY8sPgq0_LsyWMizKfXBGoe37i521jkpIPdqGXyQDMANij9yvP8Pu_a7RkD9Ac/s1600/27862976941_2f99727530_k.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXxv1XNw77YmBXwbeX5wp4U-pS9_C5FJ7a9kn2-3m_Okey9kXudtRc2szLW3q1X5mvsm_9n5BNsKf6xzY8sPgq0_LsyWMizKfXBGoe37i521jkpIPdqGXyQDMANij9yvP8Pu_a7RkD9Ac/s640/27862976941_2f99727530_k.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kampung Deret in Petogogan, South Jakarta in July 2015</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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One of the primary
requirements of the Kampung Deret program was the legality of land tenure.
Dwellers of Jakarta’s kampungs needed to show the evidence of formal or
semi-formal land tenure to be eligible for the Kampung Deret program. The Jakarta city administration would grant
land titles to the Jakarta’s kampungs dwellers with informal land tenure if they
had settled on the same portion of the land for more than 20 years. The Kampung
Deret program assisted Jakarta’s kampung dwellers to obtain land titles and
housing certificates. The Kampung Deret program received significant support
from Jakarta’s kampung residents because the program offered them land titles. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The Jakarta city administration was able to give the
kampung dwellers legal title to the lands they occupy in the first few cases of
Kampung Deret program but they failed to sustain the effort due to the
complicated process of land titling. The Kampung Deret program was finally discontinued
because the Jakarta city administration was not able to identify kampung
dwellers who occupy the land with legal land title. <i><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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The Jakarta city administration identified the
location of the Kampung Deret program that set out to be a residential area by
the Jakarta’s Spatial Plan 2030. The Jakarta’s Housing and Building Office
identified at least 392 kampungs that could be considered slums but many of
them were not qualified for the Kampung Deret program such as residents of
Bukit Duri because their area was zoned as green areas by the Jakarta’s Spatial
Plan 2030. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The planning process of the Kampung Deret program
started with the collaboration between the neighborhood leaders and the city
officials. The neighborhood leaders and the city officials identified the
residents of the selected neighborhoods who meet the requirements of the Program.
The priority was given to the residents who lived in detached semi-permanent
houses on flood prone areas, unhealthy areas or very dense areas. The Jakarta
city administration appointed the program consultants as the facilitator of the
program. The program consultants were paid the Jakarta city administration. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The consultants were assigned to assist the
beneficiaries in every stage of the Kampung Deret program. They were also
assigned to mediate the design and housing construction process and work
closely with the program beneficiaries. The program beneficiaries were
responsible to find and rent a temporary place while their housings are being
upgraded or built. The housing construction or upgrading process was about
three months. The housing construction in the Kampung Deret program was
efficient because the program used the standardized and fabricated building
materials or popularly known as <i>Rumah
Instan Sederhana Sehat</i> (RISHA).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
Land tenure legalization is not a solution to the
upgrading housing settlement for Jakarta’s kampung dwellers. It is not legal
land title, but rather the perception of security of tenure that is most
important for the sustainability of the Kampung Deret program. The security of
land tenure can be given to Jakarta’s kampung dwellers by the tolerance and
discretion of Jakarta’s spatial plan. The Jakarta’s spatial plan needs to
integrate Jakarta’s kampungs into the formal and legal system. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The approach of <i>menata
tanpa menggusur </i>(upgrading without displacement) is the key ingredient of
the Kampung Deret program. In situ upgrading was appealing to Jakarta’s kampung
dwellers. In situ upgrading in the Kampung Deret program reduced disruptions to
social and economic networks of the urban poor. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Jakarta Governor Anies Baswedan should develop the
idea of <i>Rumah Lapis </i>program from the
Kampung Deret program. The strengths and weaknesses of the Kampung Deret
program that was implemented from October 2013 until the end of 2014 should be fully
examined by the Jakarta city administration in developing the <i>Rumah Lapis </i>program. <span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Upgrading housing settlement in Jakarta’s informal
housing settlements also needs a broader development strategy to combat poverty
and inequality. In order to be effective, the </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Rumah Lapis</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> program or other upgrading housing settlement program must
be incorporated into a community development strategy that addresses
employment, transportation, education, health services and access to formal financial
institution. </span></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<br /></div>
(An edited version of this article appeared at <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/12/30/housing-poor-the-kampung-deret-lesson.html" target="new">The Jakarta Post </a>on December 30, 2017)<br />
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-32057253922604251552017-09-17T21:19:00.002-05:002019-05-12T12:00:46.741-05:00Book review: Jakarta Drawing the City Near by AbdouMaliq Simone<div class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">On August 20, 2014, I received an email from the book review editor of Journal of Planning Education & Research (<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/home/JPE" target="_blank">JPER</a>)</span> <span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">who invited me to review a new book titled Jakarta: Drawing the City Near by AbdouMaliq Simone. It's my pleasure to accept the invitation. I received the book from the JPER and started reading it. After some delays, I finally completed and submitted the review of the book to the book review editor in May 2017. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">This book review is my fourth book review for academic journals and my third book review on Indonesian cities. My previous book reviews are as follows:</span></span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b>Rukmana, Deden. </b>(2016). Urban Sustainability: A Global Perspective by Igov Vojnovic. <i>Journal of Planning
Education and Research </i>36(1): 132-134</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b>Rukmana, Deden. </b>(2011)<b>. </b><em>The Appearances
of Memory: Mnemonic Practices of Architecture and Urban Form in Indonesia by
Abidin Kusno. Pacific Affairs 84(2): 399-401</em></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b>Rukmana, Deden. </b>(2008). Planning the
Megacity: Jakarta in the Twentieth Century by Christopher Silver. <i>Journal of the American Planning Association </i>74(2): 263-264.</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">My review of <span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Jakarta: Drawing the City Near</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"> has been published by the JPER and available online on August 24, 2017 at this <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0739456X17728777" target="_blank">link</a>. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">I am pleased to share my review of this book in this blog as you can find below.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><br /></span></span>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">In the first half of the twentieth century, Batavia, the
colonial capital of the Dutch East Indies, was a small urban area of
approximately 150,000 residents. In the second half of the twentieth century,
Batavia became Jakarta, the capital of independent Indonesia. Jakarta is now a
megacity of twenty-eight million residents and is the largest and one of the
most dynamic metropolitan areas in Southeast Asia. It is also beset with most
of the urban problems experienced throughout the region.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">Jakarta: Drawing the City Near</span></i><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";"> offers new perspectives and critical
analyses of the urbanization process in Jakarta. Abdoumaliq Simone’s main
thesis is how urban residents live with uncertainty and have emerged as active
players in the urbanization process. Based on a multiyear ethnographic study in
three central city districts of Jakarta, Simone sheds light on how the city
affects its residents. He argues that Jakarta has many modes of existence but
does not exist unless its residents are able to see and feel it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">This book explores the ambiguity of Jakarta’s physical and
social landscape and the way of life of its residents, focusing on Jakarta’s
urban common. Simone’s main thesis posits that cities, including Jakarta, are
filled with ironies and deceptions, but that residents seem to find ways to
make things work.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">This book continues and complements other excellent studies on
Jakarta’s contemporary development issues, particularly <a data-referenceslink="
Kusno A. 2010. The Appearances of Memory: Mnemonic Practices of Architecture and Urban Form in Indonesia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press." data-reflink="_i1" data-rid="bibr1-0739456X17728777" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0739456X17728777"><span style="color: #006acc; text-decoration-line: none;">Kusno (2010)</span></a> and <a data-referenceslink="
Silver C. 2007. Planning the Megacity: Jakarta in the Twentieth Century. New York: Routledge." data-reflink="_i1" data-rid="bibr2-0739456X17728777" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0739456X17728777"><span style="color: #006acc; text-decoration-line: none;">Silver (2007)</span></a>.
It is a pleasure to read, intellectually stimulating, and logically organized.
A variety of figures also supplement the narrative in the book. The book is
organized into five chapters that cover four unique concepts that illuminate
Jakarta’s urbanization trajectory (near-South, Urban Majority, Devising
Relations, and Endurance) and one innovative policy. In the introduction,
Simone revisits previous studies of Jakarta on various aspects, including land
use planning, living conditions, economic and political events, and religions.
Then, he introduces the four concepts that shed light on how Jakarta’s
urbanization trajectory has affected its residents, including living conditions
and everyday struggles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">Chapter 1 introduces the “near-South,” offering a new
perspective of major metropolitan areas of the Global South that is neither the
developed North nor the underdeveloped South. Simone focuses on nearness rather
than on the distinction between the North and the South. The near-South does
not only simply mean the proximity of these cities to the underdeveloped South,
but also the proximity to the conditions of cities elsewhere. His emphasis is
on “the way cities feel, their impact on all of the senses, as well as an
intuitive knowledge” (26).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">In chapter 2, Simone discusses the concept of urban majority in
more detail and defines the urban majority as urban residents who are neither
strictly poor nor middle class. They live within a highly differentiated
“in-between” who make up the majority of urban residents. He argues that in
some cities in the Global South, including Jakarta, the urban majority is an
actual majority. The urban majority include nurses, shopkeepers, transportation
workers, teachers, and police officers. They live in central cities and
suburban diverse districts characterized by economic activities. The notion of
incrementalism is also important for the urban majority. They are able to transform
urban spaces through incremental activities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">In chapter 3, Simone discusses the concept of devising relations
and explores the relationships between residents and “non-living things” in
Jakarta. He argues that the close proximity and intensities of residents and
“non-living things” does not necessarily guarantee relations. He applies
different metaphors such as “the lure,” “the hinge,” “captivation,” and
“hodgepodge landscape” to illustrate the dynamic relations between residents
and urban spaces in Jakarta and examines how Jakarta follows the trajectory of
Global urbanization.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">Chapter 4 offers the concept of endurance that draws on the
dynamic processes of the urban majority that lives in Jakarta’s urban spaces
and deals with uncertainties, including unexpected dangers and opportunities.
This concept explores the continuation of efforts by residents to discover and
reach each other. Communities and institutions endure to constantly link
distinct entities into a common purpose and also point to the breaks and
frictions for working together. Simone posits that endurance is “the
willingness to suspend something familiar in order to engage something
unexpected” (213–14).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">In chapter 5, Simone concludes with innovative policies and ways
to shape the future of urban development. He discusses the need for maximizing
the use value of urban space, the privatization and industrialization of
development devices such as land, water, or energy, and the concretization of
development rights, that is, maintaining substantial areas of green space and
creating a denser urban area through systematic in-fills of new housing. He
suggests increasing integration and involvement of residents’ views and
aspirations to run the city and make the city work. Communities and institutions
should be visible and intelligible during the policy-making process.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">In sum, Simone offers an intriguing analysis of the trajectory
of urbanization and everyday struggles of the residents in Jakarta from his
rich ethnographic stories. His deep knowledge of other parts of the Global
South, particularly African cities, makes his analysis more stimulating and
well conceived. He compares and contrasts Jakarta with other cities of the
Global South in a variety of aspects of urban development. Such analysis is
unique and will contribute significantly to the literature of urban studies and
development, not only in the Indonesian context but in the Global South. In
this book, Simone also uses such terms as “near-South” (23), “pluri-district”
(72, i.e., the residential areas that function as complex machines to produce
economic opportunities), the urban majority (83), and “endurance” (209), which
could apply to cities in other parts of the Global South.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">I found many compelling discussions in the book, particularly
those on Jakarta’s contemporary development, including the development of new
towns, megaprojects, mass-produced housing projects for lower middle income
people, and traditional markets, and on Jakarta’s social issues including <i>tawuran</i> (violence)
and <i>preman</i> (thug).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">Despite its many virtues, the book does not discuss the most
acute problem in Jakarta, that is, traffic congestion, which affects everyday
struggles of Jakarta’s residents and which is estimated to cost US$3 billion
per year, caused by the high growth rate of car and motorcycle ownership (9 to
11 percent per year), facilitated by the ease of ownership. For example, in
order to take out a loan for a motorcycle, a popular and affordable mode of
transport to commute from the suburbs to the city center, the borrower only
needs a down payment of $30, resulting in severe congestion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">A somewhat minor issue is that the author uses the abbreviated
term <i>dekel</i> (democratically elected districtwide village
committee). Instead, he should have used the term <i>Dewan Kelurahan.</i>The
committee was established in October 2000 by Jakarta’s provincial law 5/2000
but was replaced in November 2010 by law 5/2010. The new term of democratically
elected districtwide village committee in Jakarta according to Jakarta’s
provincial law 5/2010 is <i>Lembaga Musyawarah Kelurahan (LMK).</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 15.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">
</span></span>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif";">Nevertheless, this book is carefully researched and provides
detailed descriptions and analyses of living in contemporary Jakarta. The
author enriches the discussions with a literature review of relevant topics,
which give a good theoretical background, in most parts of the book. Anyone
with a scholarly interest in the urbanization process of cities in the Global
South should read this book which may be a very useful reference for urban
researchers who focus on the Global South.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<br />
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-44537265790160451342017-05-16T12:14:00.001-05:002019-05-12T11:58:07.063-05:00Rapid Urbanization and the Need for Sustainable Transportation Policies in Jakarta<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>I was one of the keynote speakers of the 2016 International Conference on Science, Infrastructure Technology and Regional Development (ICoSITeR) hosted by the Sumatera Institute of Technology on September 28-29, 2016 in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia. The conference organizer asked me to submit my paper for the inclusion in the conference proceeding.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Below is my paper submitted to the conference organizer for the inclusion in the 2016 ICoSITeR proceeding. The paper was submitted on May 9, 2017.</i> </blockquote>
<b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Introduction</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader" style="text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jakarta is the capital of
Indonesia and the largest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia with tremendous
population growth, land use change and new town and industrial estate
development. The overall population of the Jakarta region grew in the 20th
Century, from about 150,000 in 1900 to about 30 million in 2014. This paper
discusses urbanization and suburbanization in the megacity of Jakarta and
analyzes the extent to which rapid urbanization in Jakarta has contributed to
the need for sustainable transportation policies in Jakarta. The development
and expansion of Mass Rapid Transit are documented and the use of private
vehicles and the development of elevated toll roads and bike lanes also
critically analyzed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></i><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Population Growth of the Metropolitan
Region of Jakarta</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Jakarta has been the capital of Indonesia since the
Dutch colonial era. The population of Jakarta in 1900 was about 115,000. In the
first nationwide census of the Dutch colonial administration (1930), Jakarta’s
population increased to 409,475. In the next ten years, the population
increased to 544,823 with an annual growth rate of 3.30%. After Independence,
Jakarta increased by nearly three times to 1.43 million by 1950. It increased
to 2.91 million in 1960 and 4.47 million in 1970. The annual growth rates of
Jakarta’s population are 10.35% and 5.36% (1950-1960 and 1960-1970 </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">respectively).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Table 1 shows the population of the metropolitan region of Jakarta including Jakarta, the inner and outer peripheries of Jakarta, from 1980 to 2010. The Megacity of Jakarta increased from 11.91 million in 1980, 17.14 million in 1990, and 20.63 million in 2000 to 28.01 million in 2010. The megacity in 2010 was 11.79 percent of Indonesia’s total population but this population resides in less than 0.3 percent of Indonesia’s total area. The proportions of Jabodetabek’s population to the total population of Indonesia have steadily increased from 8.07%, 9.56%, to 10.0% (in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 42.55pt; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Table 1. Population of the Metropolitan
Region of Jakarta in 1980-2010 (in millions)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 431px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Area<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1990<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Core </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Inner
peripheries<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">4.93<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">7.22<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.33<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of South Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.29<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Depok<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Bekasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.66<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.38<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Outer
peripheries <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">5.41<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.88<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">7.31<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">11.20<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Bogor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.27<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.95<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Tangerang Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.53<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.77<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.84<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Bekasi Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.62<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Bogor Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.49<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">3.74<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.92<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">4.78<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Megacity of
Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">11.91<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">17.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">20.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">28.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sources: Rukmana
(2014)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Transformation of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The modern city of Jakarta was initiated by
President Soekarno’s strong vision to build Jakarta into the greatest city
possible (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). He gave Jakarta, Monas – his most symbolic
new structure the 132 m high national monument, spacious new government
buildings, department stores, shopping plazas, hotels, the sport facilities of
Senayan that were used for the 1962 Asian Games, the biggest and most glorious
mosque of Istiqlal, new parliament buildings and the waterfront recreation area
at Ancol. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Such constructions continued under the New Order
regime that began in 1967. Under this regime, Indonesia enjoyed steady economic
growth, along with a reduction in the percentage of the population living under
the poverty line. Jakarta grew rapidly during this period of the New Order
regime. During the thirty-two years of the New Order regime, Jakarta changed
considerably. A generally rapid economic growth during this period allowed
Jakarta to expand its modern constructions and develop into a modern city.
Hundreds of new office towers, hotels and high-rise condominiums were built in
many parts of the city.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The massive development on the outskirts of the
megacity of Jakarta resulted from a series of deregulation and
de-bureaucratization measures enacted by the Suharto government in the 1980s
(Winarso and Firman 2002, p. 488). The subsidized housing finance program and
municipal permit system for land development also contributed to policies that
have most benefited some developers strongly linked to the New Order regime
(Leaf, 1994). Winarso and Firman (2002) revealed almost all large developers
were well connected to the President Suharto’s family and inner circle
including his daughters, sons, brother, in-laws and close friends. The
connection to the Suharto family and inner circle became significant; closeness
to the first family helped the large developers expand their business.
Interlinking also occurred among the large developers through
cross-shareholding, shared directorships and joint ventures; procees which
turned potential competitors into collaborators and created oligopolistic types
of land and housing markets.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Continuing with the suburbanization; this was also
caused by the development of three highways stretching from Jakarta to the
peripheries - the Jagorawi toll road, the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road, and the
Jakarta-Merak toll road (Henderson and Kuncoro 1996). The development of
private industrial parks in the peripheries naturally followed the development
of these highways (Hudalah et al 2013).
Private industrial parks in the peripheries range from 50 to 1,800
hectares and on average the size is about 500 hectares (Hudalah et al 2013);
major industrial centers are located in Cikupa-Balaraja of Tangerang Regency
and Cikarang of Bekasi Regency. The industrial center of Cikarang with a total
industrial land area of nearly 6,000 hectares is the largest planned industrial
center in Southeast Asia (Hudalah and Firman 2012).</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Jakarta’s
Transportation Problems<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The urbanization and
suburbanization in Jakarta are strongly associated with the traffic congestion
in Jakarta. Jakarta is estimated to lose US$3 billion a year because of traffic
congestion which can’t be separated from the high growth rate of vehicle
ownership (9 to 11 percent per year), unsupported by road development (less
than 1 percent a year). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Motorcycles are ubiquitous and
can be acquired with a down payment of as little as $30. The number of
registered motorcycles in Jakarta grew exponentially from 2000 to 2010 as seen
in Figure 1. The trend of the motorcycles growth will continue until a more
sustainable transportation policy is implemented. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">People who live in the outskirts
of Jakarta can save as much as 30% of their transportation costs using
motorcycles to work rather than public transport. The daily jams in Jakarta are
getting worse; the peripheries are a “bedroom suburb” for the daily commuters
of Jakarta, the center of government and corporate offices, commercial and
entertainment enterprises. The economy of Jakarta dominates its peripheral
areas. In the daytime, the total population in Jakarta is much more than its
population in the nighttime; the number of daily commuters in Jakarta is
estimated 5.4 million.</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE_9b2e72fz5lx-DMlYz5aW-kT1spDN7by4kaAsK0Mn2nhu6WUCKxGtwUfcLwi9yVRWPrUjRsbtx7QjvDTJFqr_q6nRiqjvqYQjcmteKqTdvgWDNafCC0g_dfbJ86ob1U9vob-Emel1QQ/s1600/number+of+vehicles+in+Jakarta.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE_9b2e72fz5lx-DMlYz5aW-kT1spDN7by4kaAsK0Mn2nhu6WUCKxGtwUfcLwi9yVRWPrUjRsbtx7QjvDTJFqr_q6nRiqjvqYQjcmteKqTdvgWDNafCC0g_dfbJ86ob1U9vob-Emel1QQ/s400/number+of+vehicles+in+Jakarta.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: 0.5in;">The economy of Jakarta dominates
its peripheral areas. In the daytime, the total population in Jakarta is much
more than its population in the nighttime; the number of daily commuters in
Jakarta is estimated 5.4 million. The level of services of public
transportation in Jakarta is not reliable and accessible. People who live in
the outskirts of Jakarta can save as much as 30% of their transportation costs
using motorcycles to work rather than public transport.</span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Commuters from the peripheries
primarily used three highways including the Jagorawi toll road connecting
Jakarta and the southern peripheries, the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road connecting
Jakarta and the eastern peripheries and the Jakarta-Merak toll road connecting
Jakarta and the western peripheries. Most commuters go to Jakarta to work in
government and corporate offices, study in universities, receive high quality
medical attention in the hospitals, and/or go for entertainment and cultural
activities. The current public
transportation systems have not been able to alleviate the acute traffic
congestion; it is likely that Jakarta needs a Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) or also
popularly known as Metro, in order to address this problem. Jakarta is the
largest city in the world without a ‘metro’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Most metropolitan areas in the
world with the population of over 10 million have operated metros for years.
New York City opened the first underground line of its subway in 1904 and since
then the subway has been the backbone of New York City transportation system.
Two major cities in Japan, Tokyo and Osaka built their metros in 1927 and 1933
respectively. The Tokyo Metro is the world’s most extensive rapid transit
system with more than eight million passengers daily. The second largest city
in the world, Mexico City, has had a metro since 1969 and now the Mexico City
Metro is the second largest metro system in North America after the New York
City subway. Two major cities in China, Beijing and Shanghai opened their metro
systems in 1971 and 1995 respectively. Major cities in Southeast Asia with
smaller populations than Jakarta have also had their metro systems for years,
including Manila (1984), Singapore (1987), Kuala Lumpur (1995) and Bangkok
(2004).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Need for
Sustainable Transportation Policies in Jakarta</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Rapid urbanization in Jakarta has
contributed to the need for sustainable transportation policies in Jakarta. The
growth of registered vehicles in response to the growth of population in
Jakarta and its peripheral areas has caused acute traffic congestions in
Jakarta. This section will offer several ideas of sustainable transportation
policy including reducing private vehicle uses, promoting bike lanes, and the
development of MRT. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_i4WJfdmr8n-eGtM26JBjeo4Gup_Is3VEdSnlw_8P06DnNFIWjPX7HUcO6oc69G88RwrNZ3HKmqU7yiVJdzg7DlWXg-rvArXrBWp64cJpG7hJIpdxnQqBl7ygb8Q727Njuctmy0q-j5w/s1600/Jakarta+night+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_i4WJfdmr8n-eGtM26JBjeo4Gup_Is3VEdSnlw_8P06DnNFIWjPX7HUcO6oc69G88RwrNZ3HKmqU7yiVJdzg7DlWXg-rvArXrBWp64cJpG7hJIpdxnQqBl7ygb8Q727Njuctmy0q-j5w/s640/Jakarta+night+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Reducing private
vehicle uses<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">There are several possible
solutions to eradicate traffic congestion problems and one of them is the
reduction of private vehicle uses. The New York Times reported a suburb town
without cars in Germany. Streets in this upscale town are completely car-free except
the main thoroughfare and a few streets on edge of the town. The residents of
this town are still allowed to own cars, but parking is relegated to two large
garages at the edge of the development.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The Vauban town, is located on
the outskirt of Freiburg, near the French and Swiss borders and home to 5,500
residents. The residents are heavily dependent on the tram to downtown Freiburg
and many of them take to car-sharing when longer excursions are needed. Seventy
percent of Vauban's families have no cars. They do a lot of walking and biking
to shops, banks, restaurants, schools and other destinations that are
interspersed among homes. The town is long and relatively narrow and provides
an easy walking access to the tram for every home.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Creating places with more compact
design, more accessible to public transportation and less driving is the
envision of urban planners in the 21st century. The Vauban town is an exemplar
of the 21st century urban design in response to the threats of greenhouse gas
emission and global warming and the dwindling oil supply. The Vauban's urban
design is the extension of the New Urbanism. The New Urbanism is a school of
urban design arose in the U.S. in the early 1980s. This school of urban design
promotes several key principles including walkability and connectivity, mixed
land uses, and high density. There have been many the New Urbanist towns in
several countries, but cars still fill the streets of these towns.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The Vauban town provides an
example of the possibility of creating city without cars. The walkable and
mixed-land-uses urban design, easy access to public transportation and
excellent public transportation system as demonstrated in the Vauban town are
the components for creating city without cars.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Cars are still a luxury item for
many Indonesian families. Many urban residents, particularly those live in
kampung kota, do not own cars and are used to living without cars. Streets
(gang) in Indonesia's kampung kota are too narrow for cars and the residents
are used to walking and biking to their destinations. Kampung kotas are located
in the center of urban areas and relatively accessible to public
transportations. In reference to the New Urbanism concept, the Indonesia's
kampung kota has implemented the principles of walkability and high density.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Indonesian planners need to
appreciate the existence of kampung kota in terms of lacking driving needs.
Kampung kota residents will be less likely to have a demand for cars when their
neighborhoods are accessible to public transportations and the streets in their
neighborhoods remain narrow. Kampung kota residents need to remain lack of
driving needs for reducing the car ownership rate in urban areas including
Jakarta. For new developments in suburb areas, Indonesian planners can emulate
the success of the Vauban town. Driving needs are profoundly affected by the
urban design and the high access to public transportation. It makes sense to
envision and is not all impossible to create a city without cars.<span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Promoting Bike
Lanes<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Many metropolitans in the world
have developed dedicated bicycles lanes for years. Cities in developed
countries, particularly in Europe, have integrated bicycle lanes into their
transportation network systems. Those cities such as Amsterdam, Paris, Berlin,
Copenhagen and Barcelona have been developed as bike-friendly cities. Safe and
extensive bike route networks, promotion of pro-cyclist policies, and a bike
culture have taken places in those cities. Cyclists in those cities are not
second class residents and can safely ride their bicycles as the main mode for
their daily commute to their workplaces. Copenhagen is an example of European
bike-friendly city where about a third of workforce in this city commute to the
office by bike.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: medium;">The first Jakarta’s dedicated
bike lane stretching from Ayodia Park to Blok M was inaugurated in May 2011. It
should be considered as a breakthrough in solutions for acute traffic
congestion in Jakarta. The development of dedicated bicycle lanes is a good move
from the Jakarta administration for promoting the use of bicycle as an
alternative transportation mode. If the Jakarta city administration could
encourage more motorists to shift to using bicycle to work, the city’s chronic
traffic woes could be eventually reduced.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The first dedicated bike lane in
Jakarta is only a small step in developing Jakarta as a bike-friendly city.
There are many challenges for Jakarta to be a bike-friendly city. The Jakarta
city administration needs to have a strong commitment to build more dedicated
bike lanes and integrate them with the city transportation network system.
Dedicated bike lanes should be part of the city transportation network system
and designed to accommodate the need of residents’ mobility in the city. It is very
essential to connect dedicated bike lanes with mass transportations including
the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">It’s not easy to build more
dedicated bike lanes if the Jakarta city administration still focuses on
building more elevated inner-city toll roads as the solution of addressing the
chronic traffic woes in Jakarta. It is also important to note that the first
dedicated bike lane was not initiated by the Jakarta city administration but
the Indonesian Bicycle Community (Komite Sepeda Indonesia) that donated as much
as 500 million rupiahs to build the bike lane. The Jakarta city administration
needs to change the mindset of the possible solution for the chronic traffic
congestion in the city. The solution is not building more roads, but reducing
the use of cars through improving and expanding the use of mass transportations
and bicycles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Another big challenge for bike
lanes in Jakarta is the lack of law enforcement. The Jakarta city
administration should strictly enforce the dedicated bike lanes for cyclists.
The dedicated bike lane cannot be used as parking spots and a lane for
motorcyclists. A few days after the inauguration of the bike lane stretching
from Ayodia Park to Blok M, the lane was overwhelmed by private cars, pubic
minivans and three-wheeled vehicles bajaj. A number of private cars were also
parking in the lane (The Jakarta Post, 27 May 2011). Without strict law
enforcement, the dedicated bike lane will not be an effective way to reduce the
Jakarta’s traffic woes and will only be a failed initiative.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Despite the challenges for bike
lanes in Jakarta, the inauguration of the Jakarta’s first bike lane should be
seen as a promising way of alleviating the acute traffic problems in Jakarta. I
hope that the inauguration of the Jakarta’s first bike lane could be the
milestone for the Jakarta city administration in changing the mindset of how to
address the chronic traffic problems in Jakarta. It is not building more toll
roads but reducing the use of cars through encouraging more motorists to shift
to cyclists or mass transportation riders.<span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Discouraging
Elevated Roads <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">The development of new roads will
never catch up to the growth rate of vehicle ownership. A new highway or a
widened road only alleviates traffic congestion for a short period of time. After
a few years, any new or widened highway fills with traffic that would not have
existed if the highway had not been built, a phenomenon called induced demand.
Because of induced demand, neither building new roads nor widening existing
roads are viable long-term solutions to traffic congestion. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLBCS1GKEE22IimdsjpN6uWy23FO30GWIXUhJn4nboeZ4Yjg0Xdk-P2WNVD7HhjjL7Tr_PWeZK8gU1sfDnaVc5-d9zGgLQy1PaYHGANeHhLbGGg1BwWM5vRB0kBm_Y0emTUr2BivzWPHM/s1600/Jkt+skyline+Summer+2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLBCS1GKEE22IimdsjpN6uWy23FO30GWIXUhJn4nboeZ4Yjg0Xdk-P2WNVD7HhjjL7Tr_PWeZK8gU1sfDnaVc5-d9zGgLQy1PaYHGANeHhLbGGg1BwWM5vRB0kBm_Y0emTUr2BivzWPHM/s640/Jkt+skyline+Summer+2015.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The new roads will also undermine
the efforts to develop a mass transportation system in Jakarta. The main idea
of developing a mass transportation system, including the TransJakarta busway
and the monorail and Mass Rapid Transit projects, is to reduce the number of
motorists and motorcyclists on Jakarta’s streets. Drivers would be expected to
use the mass transportation and reduce traffic, but new roads would only
attract more motorists. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Not only would elevated roads
stimulate induced demand and thus worsen traffic congestion, they could also
jeopardize the livability of neighborhoods along them. In many cities in other
countries, such as Seoul, New Orleans, San Francisco and New York City,
elevated freeways have negatively affected livability. At the same time, in
many developed countries, we have seen a shift in urban planning from enhancing
mobility toward promoting livability. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The Cheonggyecheon freeway was
completed in 1977 and was seen a as a symbol of modernization and
industrialization in South Korea after the war with the North. This elevated
freeway was built above a 5.8-kilometer stream flowing through downtown Seoul.
By 2000, the area was considered the most crowded and noisy part of the city
and became an eyesore for residents. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In July 2003, the then-mayor of
Seoul and the current president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, launched a
project to tear down the Cheonggyecheon freeway and revitalize the surrounding
area. During the demolition process, the city administration developed public
transportation systems, including Bus Rapid Transit lines. Today, the
Cheonggyecheon area has been revitalized and is one of Seoul’s main tourist
areas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In 1973, New York City’s West
Side elevated highway collapsed and was never repaired but replaced by a
surface boulevard of West Avenue. Similarly, two elevated freeways in San
Francisco, Embarcadero and Central Freeways, were badly damaged by the Loma
Prieta earthquake of 1989. The San Francisco city administration decided not to
rebuild the elevated freeways, but replaced them with surface boulevards. The
conversion of elevated freeways in both New York City and San Francisco did not
cause traffic havocs. The traffic switched to the boulevards, nearby street or
mass transit (James and Norquist 2010). Furthermore, a team of researchers from
the UC Berkeley (Cervero, Kang, and Shively 2009) found that the conversion of
elevated Embarcadero and Central Freeways with boulevard has stimulated
reinvestment in the neighborhoods along the freeways without seriously
sacrificing transportation performance. More recently, the residents of New
Orleans have decided not to rebuild the damaged elevated expressway caused by
the Hurricane Katrina, but replace it with an oak-lined boulevard (James and
Norquist 2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">The conversion of elevated
freeways to surface boulevards in Seoul, New York City, San Francisco or New
Orleans is evidence of a paradigm shift from a focus on expediting the movement
of automobile to a focus on increasing the livability of neighborhoods. The
livability of neighborhoods should be prioritized over the increase of
mobility. Jakarta needs to learn from what has happened in Seoul, New Orleans,
San Francisco or New York City regarding the elevated freeways. Not only is the
proposed six elevated toll road projects the solution for the traffic
congestion in Jakarta, but also they could cause the decline of livability of
neighborhoods along the elevated toll roads. The Jakarta city administration
should revisit their decision to build the new elevated toll roads and instead
they should focus their efforts on building mass transportation systems in
alleviating transportation problems in Jakarta.</span><i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Development
of Mass Rapid Transit<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">In order to address traffic
congestion, two flagship projects are underway including the development of
Cilamaya Seaport and the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) project. The Cilamaya Seaport
is located outside of the Jabodetabek, but is connected with the
Jakarta-Cikampek toll road. This planned seaport is located in Karawang
Regency. All shipping activities of
industrial parks in the megacity are currently using the Tanjung Priok port in
Jakarta. The Cilamaya Seaport is designed to mitigate further traffic congestion
caused by heavy traffic flowing from the eastern parts of the megacity to the
Tanjung Priok port. This will be a new transportation hub for the megacity’s
industrial parks. The MRT project would become the most expensive public
projects in Jakarta’s history, but it is the answer to address acute traffic
congestions in Jakarta.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYlKZQHHcku-HbX-e3m5UCPAmH3eDuNKeznpK9glRa4iXGW7pkTzIIT54ytwv8XH4sR1utpexGlbvUeNd68F_x4SVjA1EkBXFjb8sOt1-VjSBo92Ks8Br-nntjxWyEzPkR6VjnUul8jO0/s1600/Kampung+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYlKZQHHcku-HbX-e3m5UCPAmH3eDuNKeznpK9glRa4iXGW7pkTzIIT54ytwv8XH4sR1utpexGlbvUeNd68F_x4SVjA1EkBXFjb8sOt1-VjSBo92Ks8Br-nntjxWyEzPkR6VjnUul8jO0/s640/Kampung+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">For at least 20 years, the
proposed MRT has been under discussion by the Jakarta administration and the
government of Indonesia. Activists and non-governmental watchdogs have seen the
MRT proposal as a possible bonanza for corrupt politicians and contractors
(Economist, 4 February 2010). Eventually, the government secured a $1.6 billion
loan agreement with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in
2009 for funding. Vice President Boediono also asked the JICA to expedite the
design and construction of MRT project; the first tract of the MRT project was
to be completed in 2016 (The Jakarta Post, 20 October 2010). The construction
of the MRT project began on October 10, 2013. Governor Joko Widodo launched the
flagship project in a groundbreaking ceremony at Dukuh Atas, Central Jakarta
(The Jakarta Globe, October 11, 2013).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">One MRT train will consist of six
cars and be able to transport a maximum of 1,200 passengers per trip. The MRT
Jakarta will operate 16 trains and transport 1.5 million passengers a day. The
first MRT tract will connect Lebak Bulus, South Jakarta and the Hotel Indonesia
traffic circle with six underground stations, seven elevated stations and a
capacity of 173,000 passengers per day.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: medium; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The growth of registered vehicles
in response to the rapid urbanization has caused acute traffic congestions in
Jakarta. The Jakarta administration needs to find sustainable transportation
policies to address the transportation problems in Jakarta. The development of
MRT could be viable solutions to alleviate the acute traffic jams in Jakarta. The
main idea behind developing a mass transportation system, including the
TransJakarta busway and the monorail and Mass Rapid Transit projects, is to reduce
the number of motorists and motorcyclists on Jakarta’s streets. Drivers would
be expected to use the mass transportation and reduce traffic, whereas new
roads only attract more motorists. Jakarta needs to discourage the development
of elevated roads that will stimulate induced demand and thus worsen traffic
congestion. Elevated roads will jeopardize the livability of neighborhoods
along them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">In addition, Jakarta will need to
promote bike lanes and reduce the use of private vehicle. Jakarta needs to encourage
the development and usage of the smartphone apps on its two-way ability to
locate, coordinate and orchestrate both passengers and vehicles and encourage
more biking and walking for its residents. Jakarta will also need to implement
other innovative sustainable transportation policies including carpool matching
services, shuttle services, telecommuting and downzoning and better parking
management in downtown areas. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">References: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Cervero,
R., Kang, J., and Shively, K. (2009). From elevated freeways to surface
boulevards: neighborhood and housing price impacts in San Francisco. Journal of
Urbanism 2(1): 31-50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Cowherd,
Robert. (2005). Does planning culture matter? Dutch and American models in
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Cybriwsky,
Roman and Ford, Larry R. (2001). City profile: Jakarta. Cities 18(3): 199-210.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Economist,
4 February 2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ernst,
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Firman,
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<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Firman,
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<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Firman,
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Hadiz,
V.R. (2004). Decentralization and Democracy in Indonesia: A Critique of
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<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Henderson,
Vernon. (2003). The urbanization process and economic growth: The so-what
question. Journal of Economic Growth 8:47-71<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Hudalah,
Delik and Johan Woltjer. (2007). Spatial planning system in transitional
Indonesia. International Planning Studies 12(3): 291-303<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Hudalah,
Delik and Tommy Firman. (2011). Beyond property: Industrial estates and
post-suburban transformation in Jakarta Metropolitan Region. Cities 29: 40-48<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Hudalah,
Delik, Dimitra Viantari, Tommy Firman, and Johan Woltjer. (2013). Industrial
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Geography 1-22. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">James,
C. and Norquist, J. (2010). Tearing down an expressway to restore a community. </span><a href="http://www.nola.com/opinions/index.ssf/2010/08/tearing_down_an_expressway_to.html"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">http://www.nola.com/opinions/index.ssf/2010/08/tearing_down_an_expressway_to.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Kawaguchi,
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<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Leaf,
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<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Rukmana,
Deden. (2014). Peripheral Pressures: Jakarta. Archeology of the Periphery of
Megacities. Roger Connah (Ed.). Moscow: Strelka Press. Pp. 158-167<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Silver,
Christopher. (2007). Planning the megacity: Jakarta in the twentieth century.
London and New York: Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Steinberg,
Florian. (2007). Jakarta: Environmental problem and sustainability. Habitat
International 31(3-4): 354-365<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Jakarta Globe, October 11, 2013<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Jakarta Post, 20 October 2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Jakarta Post, 27 May 2011<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Wijayanti,
Laksmi. (1998). Environmental planning in Indonesia: The linkage between
spatial planning and environmental impact assessment. Thesis. Boston:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Winarso,
Haryo and Tommy Firman. (2002). Residential land development in Jabotabek,
Indonesia: triggering economic crisis? Habitat International 26: 487-506<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Yagi,
S., & Mohammadian, A. K. (2010). An activity-based microsimulation model of
travel demand in the Jakarta metropolitan area. Journal of Choice Modelling,
3(1), 32-57.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-28122121798610791422017-05-02T16:56:00.000-05:002017-05-16T12:16:56.766-05:00Corruption in Spatial Planning<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>I was invited to give
a lecture at the <a href="http://cseas.yale.edu/NEC-Indonesia-2017" target="_blank">Yale Indonesia Forum Dialogue</a> on April 21, 2017. The other
guest lecture was M. Chatib Basri, a former Indonesian Minister of Finance. On
the following day, Mr. Basri and I also attended the 16<sup>th</sup>
Northwestern Conference on Indonesia. The theme of the dialogue and conference
was “A Nation in Dysfunction: Discourses on Corruption in Indonesia”. A total
of five scholars presented their papers in the conference. They offered an insightful
analysis of the case of corruptions in various aspects in Indonesia. The
presentations revealed some distressing issues of corruption, but offered some
recommendations for rectifying the issues.<br /> </i><i><br /></i><i>I enjoyed my time in
the dialogue and the conference. It’s a well-organized event and I would like
to commend the event organizers for running a successful event. Below is my
presentation at the Yale Indonesia Forum Dialogue</i></blockquote>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
The <i>reformation</i>
movement in Indonesia sought to get rid of economic monopolies, fight corruption,
collusion, and nepotism and promote accountable and clean government (Anwar
2005; Nomura 2007). The new system of government after the fall of Suharto’s
New Order regime enacted a more democratic and accountable institutional
setting. One of the new regulations is the transfer of various authorities and
responsibilities from central government to local government. Such a transfer
creates powerful local government and leads to rampant corruption in city and
provincial governments. <o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrEx_L90-92WLFdawjufLXcbTTtZdkTgYmulCH1KXhWxRTsP_3q5p438ICxbQnlUSie4jv8Icd-fpyLqaFRl1-Vd4rHJcjRnqF4t4AOEvJ2f2HN8UTh3OkCRn_fFGe92LC4UnSKBBDmqo/s1600/yale-university_34433162445_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrEx_L90-92WLFdawjufLXcbTTtZdkTgYmulCH1KXhWxRTsP_3q5p438ICxbQnlUSie4jv8Icd-fpyLqaFRl1-Vd4rHJcjRnqF4t4AOEvJ2f2HN8UTh3OkCRn_fFGe92LC4UnSKBBDmqo/s640/yale-university_34433162445_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i style="font-size: medium; text-align: start; text-indent: -24px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">All photos credit: Amanda Anggita, Yale University</span></i><br />
The keynote speakers and the conference organizers of the Yale Indonesia Forum Dialogue<br />
<br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
This article discusses corruption in the local government level
and focus on spatial planning cases. Corruption in spatial planning in city and
provincial governments creates hindrances for creating inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable cities in Indonesia as mandated by the New Urban Agenda
of the UN HABITAT. Spatial planning is defined by the Spatial Planning Law
26/2007 as plan-making process, plan implementation and development control.
The corruption in each component of spatial planning procedure is discussed and
the cases of spatial planning violations are presented. Some recommendations of
eradicating corruption in spatial planning are also offered in the article.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Spatial Planning Laws
in Indonesia<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The increases of economic growth and foreign investments in
Indonesia as the results of the deregulation measures in the 1980s had
substantially increased the demand for lands, particularly in the Jakarta
Metropolitan Areas (Firman and Dharmapatni 1994; Firman 1998). The increasing
demand for lands had also resulted in various problems of implementing spatial
plans.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In response to the growing need for coordinating the issues
of spatial plans implementation, in November 1989, the Indonesia government
formed a coordinating team of national spatial planners (Keppres 57/1989) which
was led by the Minister of National Planning. This team was assigned to develop
a set of guidelines for implementing spatial plans. The coordinating team of
spatial plan implementation also prepared a spatial planning bill which then
was passed by the Indonesian parliament in October 1992 and became the first
Indonesian spatial planning law, The Spatial Planning Law 24/1992.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Spatial planning is defined by the Spatial Planning Law
24/1992 as plan-making process (<i>proses perencanaan tata ruang</i>), plan
implementation (<i>pemanfaatan ruang</i>), and development control (<i>pengendalian
pemanfaatan ruang</i>). The provision of the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992 includes
the guidelines of the plan-making process, plan implementation and development
control for national, provincial and local levels. <o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJnoBDk622ga_QJoSbZn8UBYyUuw5lqD8-cdirpwi60-kx2-JZLe1hQ8h5OCAkIECA0Jj9jOaVySCElCmMHSYISy-H8PpA1-E27kMcW6ssXoCxVo7QLGYJBUTd2l-VNrt19Va0nXvlTDg/s1600/yale-university_34433162215_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="411" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJnoBDk622ga_QJoSbZn8UBYyUuw5lqD8-cdirpwi60-kx2-JZLe1hQ8h5OCAkIECA0Jj9jOaVySCElCmMHSYISy-H8PpA1-E27kMcW6ssXoCxVo7QLGYJBUTd2l-VNrt19Va0nXvlTDg/s640/yale-university_34433162215_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The attendees, keynote speakers and organizers of the Yale Indonesia Forum Dialogue</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Spatial Planning Law 24/1992 stipulates the principles
of the spatial planning in Indonesia including integrity, sustainability,
effectiveness, efficiency, compatibility, harmony, openness, equality, justice,
and legal protection. The rights,
obligations and participation of the people in the spatial planning are also
stipulated in the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992. The people have the right to
know the spatial plan, participate in the plan-making process and receive just
compensation when their property is acquired for public uses. The detailed
regulation on the rights, obligation and participation of the people in spatial
planning was issued in December 1996 (Peraturan Pemerintah (National
Regulation) 69/1996). This regulation was the first detailed regulation enacted
by the Indonesian government from the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The fundamental institutional changes in Indonesia following
the fall of the New Order Regime also affected the Spatial Planning Law
24/1992. This law was considered to be no longer relevant with new
institutional settings, particularly with the new decentralization laws. This
law was also poorly implemented and considered to be ineffective. The Spatial
Law 24/1992 had no sanction provisions for spatial plan violations.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Directorate General of Spatial Planning prepared the
bill of spatial planning and actively participated in the deliberation for
nearly two years with the Indonesian parliament. The Indonesian parliament
passed the bill of spatial planning in April 2007 and replaced the Spatial
Planning Law 24/1992. The new law, the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007, contains
some provisions that are not included in the previous law. In accordance with
the new decentralization laws, the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 stipulates
explicitly the authority of provincial governments (<i>pemerintah provinsi) </i>and of
district governments (<i>pemerintah kabupaten </i>and <i>pemerintah kota</i>) in spatial
planning. The provincial and district governments have a broader authority in
spatial planning. The provincial or district governments can stipulate new
components in their spatial plan that are not stipulated in the higher level of
spatial plans.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The planning periods of national spatial plans (RTRW
Nasional), provincial spatial plans (RTRW Propinsi) and district spatial plans
(RTRW Kabupaten and RTRW Kotamadya) in the Spatial Plan 26/2007 differ from
those in the Spatial Plan 24/1992. The planning periods of each level of
governments are 20 years. The changes of planning periods were made to be
consistent with the National Development and Planning System Law 25/2004. The
Law 25/2004 stipulates that each level of government is required to prepare a
long term development plan (RPJP). The planning periods of RPJP in each level
of government are 20 years. The spatial plans and RPJP of each level of
government become the long term guidelines for the government leaders in each
level (president, governors, and mayors or regents) to govern in their
respective jurisdictions. <o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIcHeBakBzl95Ki0Zk0dimgxCGyn7Vr6nVdvyp-xGMeCZY_J3j-fPcPIlauZHPy06ejhM6zhS-8c2ClDlGNTxatzvHXg8rc7tQQt1H8YnFvNYD4-ZVc17G8fduXT4gyV9I_jPEcXjxqOw/s1600/yale-university_34391551246_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIcHeBakBzl95Ki0Zk0dimgxCGyn7Vr6nVdvyp-xGMeCZY_J3j-fPcPIlauZHPy06ejhM6zhS-8c2ClDlGNTxatzvHXg8rc7tQQt1H8YnFvNYD4-ZVc17G8fduXT4gyV9I_jPEcXjxqOw/s640/yale-university_34391551246_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Sixteenth Northeastern Conference on Indonesia at Yale University on April 22, 2017</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
One of the important provisions of the Spatial Planning Law
26/2007 is the requirement of at least 30% of urban areas for open spaces. The
open spaces can be public and private open spaces. More specifically, public
open spaces account for at least 20% of urban areas. In addition, this law
stipulates that forest areas must account for at least 30% of river stream
areas. Such provision was not included in the previous spatial planning law.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 also stipulates the minimal
standard of services in spatial planning. Such provision is to ensure a good
quality of basic services of spatial planning for the Indonesian people. This
is a response to the dissatisfaction of the Indonesian people over the poor
quality of services from the government during the New Order Regime. The
quality of basic services has not improved under the new system of government
in Indonesia. Many local governments do not even know how to efficiently and
effectively manage their resources for providing basic needs and improving
public services in their localities (Firman 2002; Firman 2004; Silver 2005).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The new spatial law provides some new ways for enhancing the
development control including zoning regulation (peraturan zonasi), planning
permits, implementation of incentive and disincentive and imposing sanctions.
The incentives could be tax cuts, compensation, cross subsidy, planning permit
deregulation, and awards. The disincentives include higher taxes, the
limitation of infrastructure, imposing compensation and penalty. The
implementation of incentive and disincentive could be from the central
government to local governments (province, kabupaten and kota), from local
government to other local governments and from governments to community. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another important provision of the Spatial Planning Law
26/2007 is the sanction provision for spatial plan violations. The sanctions
for spatial plan violations include administrative sanctions and criminal
sanctions. This law stipulates nine types of administrative sanctions including
written warning, temporary activity termination, temporary service termination,
location closure, permit revocation, cancellation, building removal, land use
reconversion, and administrative charges. The criminal sanctions in this law
include imprisonments up to 15 years and penalties up to Rp. 5billions (approximately
US$ 500,000).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>The Practice of
Spatial Planning<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During the New Order regime, almost all large developers
were well connected to the President Suharto’s family and inner circle. Winarso
and Firman (2002) revealed almost all large developers were well connected to the
President Suharto’s daughters, sons, brother, in-laws and close friends. The
connection to the Suharto’s family and inner circle became an important factor
for the developers to develop their businesses. The closeness to the first
family helped the large developers to expand their business. These interlinks
also occurred among the large developers through cross-shareholding, shared
directors, and joint ventures. The interlinks turned potential competitors into
collaborators and created oligopolistic types of land and housing markets. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Many development decisions made in the JMA were in favor of
the proposed developments from the developers who often bribed the authorities
and the local governments. The spatial plan was poorly implemented. <i><o:p></o:p></i><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtezhGuyMzRD5lvZYknRbSZRXr6MdZSFsSAsoX4zpwqCk7wF7cCypOE7tclkPfhmrAM31q0ECA5XWVGrnwDExa2_Fj0r20avjnvtcmdP6SNHx_3I46ZNDiHX3Bd7AkQ_F-Nd-zKA9A7SQ/s1600/yale-university_33591159244_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtezhGuyMzRD5lvZYknRbSZRXr6MdZSFsSAsoX4zpwqCk7wF7cCypOE7tclkPfhmrAM31q0ECA5XWVGrnwDExa2_Fj0r20avjnvtcmdP6SNHx_3I46ZNDiHX3Bd7AkQ_F-Nd-zKA9A7SQ/s640/yale-university_33591159244_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">The Sixteenth Northeastern Conference on Indonesia at Yale University on April 22, 2017</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The discretion of the planning authority was an important
factor in the implementation of spatial planning in Indonesia. Regulations
stipulated in the spatial plans (RTRWs) were interpreted loosely and
restrictions were considered flexible by the planning authority in the local
government level (Cowherd 2005, p. 182). The local governments were also under
pressure from the political elite influences and the developers to circumvent
spatial plans. This explains why the implementation of spatial planning in
Indonesia, in many cases, led to corruption and unfairness.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
Cowherd (2005, p. 183) revealed that only some eight percent
of the land permitted for housing in the province of West Java was in
compliance with the spatial plans. The spatial planning was made to accommodate
new development rather than to control undesirable development as confirmed in
the following interview with a planner:<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<i>The
economic growth and the expansion of employment are more important than the
enforcement of spatial plans. The enforcement of spatial plan is so weak that
spatial plans have simply been ineffective. Spatial plans were frequently
prepared to accommodate the interest of developers rather than to plan for more
sustainable areas and communities. For example, the spatial plans in Purwakarta
and Karawang Regencies in 1995 were prepared to accommodate the interest of the
Bukit Indah City developers (R. Sutriadi, personal communication, 5 September
2011). <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The alterations to the statutory spatial plan were very
often made when the proposals from the developer were not recommended in the
statutory spatial plan. Furthermore, the large developers were also allowed to
prepare a new spatial plan then approved by the government (Winarso and Firman
2002). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
President Suharto used his extraordinary powers to
circumvent planning and exempted the megaprojects of his family, friends and
business partners from both spatial plans and free-market competition (Cowherd
2005, p. 183). The case of Kapuknaga Beach Tourism Development in the mid-1990s
provides a testament to the use of political elite influences, particularly
those of President Suharto, in the violation of spatial plans. A consortium of
large developers planned to develop the 8,000 hectares of Kapuknaga, a coastal
area in the northern part of the JMA, through land reclamation. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Regardless of these laws and regulations that protect the
Kapuknaga area from land use change, the 8,000 hectares of Kapuknaga Beach
Tourism Development was approved by the Presidential Decree 73/1995, and the
Governor of West Java was appointed as the chair of the Kapuknaga Development
Board (Firman 1999, p. 1039; Wijayanti 1998). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There was also a controversial plan proposed by Bambang
Trihatmodjo, son of the former President Suharto, to develop a new town of
Bukit Jonggol. The 30,000 hectares of
Bukit Jonggol was approved by the Presidential Decree 1/1997for a possible new
Indonesian capital. The size of this new town was almost equal to that of
Indonesia’s second largest city, Surabaya (Firman 1997, p. 1037). This area was
critical to the water supply of Jakarta and the control of downstream flooding.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 was enacted in a more
transparent and accountable system of government. The central government has
never issued a presidential decree for approving any gigantic project that
violates spatial plans. Nevertheless,
the central government still interfered, through several ministries, in local
decision-making including local spatial plan decisions. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A recent case in the Senayan Area showed the Jakarta city
administration cannot regulate the areas which are fully controlled by the
central government. The central government through the State Secretariat
(Kantor Sekretariat Negara) leased the 11.2 hectare, unused Taman Ria amusement
park in Senayan Area to PT. Ariobimo Laguna Perkasa, a developer that planned
to transform the unused amusement park into a shopping mall. The project drew
reactions from some members of the House of Representatives who opposed the
conversion of the area into a shopping mall (Tempo Interaktif, 19 July 2010). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Jakarta spatial plan 2000-2010 and the draft Jakarta
spatial plan 2010-2030 designated the area of the unused amusement park as
green areas. The project of a shopping mall in the area is a violation of the
Jakarta spatial plans by the developer with the support from the central
government. The central government through the State Secretariat has full
authority over the area and disregarded the Jakarta spatial plan when they
leased the area to the developer. This case clearly shows the Jakarta city
administration cannot enforce the spatial plans when the area is fully
controlled by the central government. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the local government level, the violations of spatial
plans were more rampant than ever. Spatial plan violations before the <i>reformasi</i>
are mostly associated with the central government’s power, particularly with
President Suharto’s extraordinary powers that benefited his family, friends and
business partners. In contrast, spatial plan violations after the <i>reformasi </i>are
mostly associated with local governments that use their decentralized powers
and exploit their natural resources more intensively, as the interview excerpt
below shows:<o:p></o:p></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>The decentralized powers have created powerful mayors and
regents. They are no longer afraid of their respective governors and the
governors are no longer afraid of the Minister of Home Affairs. The spatial
plan violations are even worse when the local authorities rent or sell the
local assets such as parks and historic buildings to the developers for
generating more local revenues (D. Priatmodjo, personal communication, 25 July
2010). </i></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 stipulates the requirement
of at least 30% of urban areas for open spaces, but such a provision is poorly
implemented, particularly by local governments. In the 1970s, green areas made
up between 40 and 50 percent of Jakarta and have been shrinking ever since
(Silver 2007). Green areas in Jakarta in 2009 account for only 9.3 percent of
the city's area (Rukmana 2009). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The proportions of green areas in the Jakarta spatial plans
decreased from 27.6 percent in <i>Rencana Induk Djakarta</i> (Djakarta Master Plan)
1965-1985 and 26.1 percent in <i>Rencana Umum Tata Ruang Jakarta</i> (Jakarta Spatial
Plan) 1985-2005 to 13.94 percent in <i>Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Jakarta</i> (Jakarta
Spatial Plan) 2000-2010 (Rukmana 2008). The newer spatial plan accepted the
decreases of green areas and validated the violations of the previous spatial
plans (Steinberg 2007). The decreases of green areas in the three Jakarta
spatial plans strongly indicate the spatial plan violations. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 provides the sanction
provision for spatial plan violations but the government failed to impose
sanctions against the conversion of green areas in the Jakarta Metropolitan
Area. The spatial plans were all but
ignored by the Jakarta city administration. The enforcement of spatial plans
has been so weak and no sanctions have been imposed to spatial plan violations
including the Jakarta city administration and the developers who convert the green
areas into new homes, condominiums, malls, hotels, commercials and office
buildings. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
One of Indonesia’s prominent NGOs, WALHI, has identified at
least 5 areas designated as green areas in the Jakarta spatial plan
1985-2005have been converted into malls, commercials, hotels and residential
areas (Khalid 2009). These five areas include Kelapa Gading (3,182 acres),
Pantai Kapuk (2,053 acres), Sunter ( 3,605 acres), Senayan (689 acres), and
Tomang (172 acres). The converted uses in each area can be seen in Table 1. The
Jakarta spatial plan 2000-2010 accepted the conversion of those five areas and
validated the violations of the Jakarta spatial plan 1985-2005 (Joga and Antar
2007). As many other spatial plan violation cases, there was no sanction imposed
against the Jakarta Administration for allowing those conversions. <o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
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The Indonesian National Agency of Land Affairs (BPN) issued the
maps of land use conformity with the spatial plans for all provinces in 2007. In
Jakarta, non-conformity lands were found in many parts of the area particularly
in the southwest and northeast parts of Jakarta. Spatial planning violations
and unconformity are evidence of corruption in spatial planning.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Spatial planning is one of the important keys to create inclusive,
safe, resilient and sustainable cities. Spatial planning is an important urban
intervention for achieving sustainable urban development. The corruption in
spatial planning occurred in all stages of spatial planning (plan making
process, plan implementation, and development control) and it will impede sustainable
urban development.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Eradicating
corruption in spatial planning is a precondition for achieving sustainable
urban development. I would offer some ways of eradicating corruption in spatial
planning as follows:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Increase
public participation and transparency during the plan making process<o:p></o:p></div>
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Public participation has become a key
element of planning activity in developed countries over the last decades (Laurian
and Shaw 2009). The public should be involved in every step of the plan making
process in order to increase the legitimacy of the plan. Public participation
is also a way of increasing community empowerment and capacity building. Public
participation will promote transparency, inclusiveness and fairness in the plan
making process. Transparency will minimize rooms for corruptions and corrupt behavior.
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Empower
citizens and non-government organizations<o:p></o:p></div>
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Public participation will promote the
consideration of all concerned and affected citizens. Public participation can
increase public awareness of local issues including spatial plans in the local
level. The awareness of local issues from the empowered citizen and
non-government organizations is very important and can strive to achieve
sustainable urban development and reduce corruptions and corrupt behavior from
the city administrators. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Offer
training to more urban planners with a deep knowledge of inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable cities<o:p></o:p></div>
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Urban planners need to understand that
corruption is the roots of urban issues including annual floods and acute traffic
jams. Inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities will not be achieved
without efforts of eradicating rampant corruptions in spatial planning. In
order to prevent the spatial plan violations, technical and legal training and
adequate operational budget for spatial plan inspections should be offered to
the officials in the lowest level of government including sub-district
(kecamatan) and neighborhood (kelurahan) levels (R. Munir, personal
communication, 11 July 2011). Capacity building of the government officials in
the lowest level of government is an important key to enforcing spatial plans
in Indonesian cities. This important key is not stipulated in the Spatial
Planning Law 26/2007. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Promote
access to spatial planning information<o:p></o:p></div>
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Spatial plans are the public
information. All residents must have access to spatial plans. Residents should be
able to access any information concerning zoning and other land use regulations
in their areas. The informed residents will promote the level of public
participation in the plan making process and raise the legitimacy of the
spatial plans. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Enforce
spatial plan laws<o:p></o:p></div>
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The poor spatial plan enforcement is a
result of the absence of zoning regulations and zoning inspections. Zoning
regulation is one of four new provisions in the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007
for enhancing the development control. Zoning regulation is the main reference
for the issuance of land use permit in Indonesian cities, but such new
provision was not supported by the provision of zoning inspectors. The Spatial
Planning Law 26/2007 stipulates the role of Penyidik Pegawai Negeri Sipil (PPNS)
who is expected to investigate any spatial plan violations. However, most
planning departments in Indonesian cities do not have zoning inspectors or
PPNSs. The lack of zoning inspectors is one of the causes of spatial plan
violations and rampant corruptions in spatial planning in Indonesian cities. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Discretionary
vs. regulatory planning system<o:p></o:p></div>
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The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 is an
application of regulatory planning system. Some benefits and costs were found
in the regulatory planning system. It’s going to be a new study that compares
and contrasts these two planning systems in Indonesia. Nevertheless, the
application of discretionary planning system could potentially reduce rooms for
corruptions and corrupt behavior in spatial planning in Indonesia. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Cowherd, Robert.
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and Wong, Tai-Chee. (2000). Growth, crisis and spatial change: A study of
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Hadiz, V.R. (2004).
Decentralization and Democracy in Indonesia: A Critique of Neo-Institutionalist
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Hudalah, Delik and
Johan Woltjer. (2007). Spatial planning system in transitional Indonesia.
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Joga, Nirwono and
Yori Antar. (2007). Komedi lenong: Satire ruang terbuka hijau. Jakarta:
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Khalid, Khalisah.
(2009). The green space area’s policy and eviction urban poor in Jakarta: Case
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Koresawa, Atsushi
and Josef Konvitz. (2001). In Towards a new role of spatial planning.
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-24596664014663120712016-11-11T16:56:00.006-05:002017-05-17T07:16:21.974-05:00Problems and Challenges in Jakarta Caused by Rapid Urbanization<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>In September 2016, I received an invitation from an editor of <a href="http://www.thevelvetcell.com/blogs/news" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Velvet Cell Journal</a> to submit an article about Jakarta. This journal is a blog of the Velvet Cell publisher. The Velvet Cell published photo books that explore urban fabrics including architecture, space and societal structure. Previously, I received a book from the Velvet Cell titled "<a href="http://www.thevelvetcell.com/collections/all-titles/products/jakarta-modest-interventions-and-minor-improvisations-isidro-ramirez" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Jakarta: Modern Interventions and Minor Improvisations</a>" by photographer Isidro Ramirez. I found the book very interesting. I enjoyed every single photo of Jakarta in the book. Those photos capture the challenges of living in Jakarta very well. </i><i><br /></i><i></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>The editor of Velvet Cell Journal asked me to write an article about Jakarta that could accompany the focus of Isidro's book which is the difficulties associated with the living in Jakarta, an overpopulated city that is expanding very fast. </i><i><br /></i><i></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Below is the article that I prepared for them. The article was posted on October 27, 2106 and can be found <a href="http://www.thevelvetcell.com/blogs/news/problems-and-challenges-in-jakarta-caused-by-rapid-urbanization" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">here</a>.</i></blockquote>
<i><br /></i>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Not only is Jakarta the largest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia, it is also the most dynamic, though beset with most of the urban problems experienced in twentieth first century Southeast Asia. Jakarta has been the capital of Indonesia since the Dutch colonial era and the economic, commercial and transportation hub of the nation. The population of Jakarta in 1900 was about 115,000. After Independence, Jakarta increased by nearly three times to 1.43 million by 1950. It increased to 2.91 million in 1960 and 4.47 million in 1970. Table below shows the population of Jakarta and the inner and outer peripheries of Jakarta, from 1980 to 2010. The Megacity of Jakarta or popularly known as Jabodetabek increased from 11.91 million in 1980, 17.14 million in 1990, and 20.63 million in 2000 to 28.01 million in 2010. The megacity in 2010 was 11.79 percent of Indonesia’s total population but this population resides in less than 0.3 percent of Indonesia’s total area.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Table <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Population of the Megacity of Jakarta in 1980-2010<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">(in millions)</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: -13.05pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 431px;"><tbody>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Area<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1990<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Core</span></i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Inner peripheries<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">4.93<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">7.22<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> City of Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.33<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> City of South Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">0.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.29<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> City of Depok<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> City of Bekasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.66<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.38<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Outer peripheries <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">5.41<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">8.88<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">7.31<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">11.20<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> City of Bogor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">0.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">0.27<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">0.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">0.95<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Tangerang Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.53<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.77<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.84<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Bekasi Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1.62<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Bogor Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.49<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">3.74<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2.92<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">4.78<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1pt solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Megacity of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">11.91<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">17.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 46pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">20.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 45pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">28.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"></span><br />
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Sources: Central Bureau of Statistics, Firman (1997) and Cox (2011)</span></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Rapid urbanization in the megacity of Jakarta caused a wide range of urban problems in the last few decades. Two major problems are traffic congestions and floods. </span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Jakarta is estimated to lose US$3 billion a year because of traffic congestion which can’t be separated from the high growth rate of vehicle ownership. The daily jams in Jakarta are getting worse. Motorcycles are ubiquitous and can be acquired with a down payment of as little as $30. The motorcycle ownership grew from 1.62 million in 2000 to 7.52 million in 2010 and 13.08 million in 2014. People who live in the outskirts of Jakarta can save as much as 30% of their transportation costs using motorcycles to work rather than public transport.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br /></span>
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<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: HelveticaNeue, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Nearly two-thirds of the population live in the peripheral areas of Jakarta commute to the center for most of their needs including jobs, schools, medical, entertainments, etc. Unless there are a </span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">reliable, accessible, and affordable public transportation modes that connect the center and peripheral areas of the megacity of Jakarta</span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">, the traffic congestions in the megacity of Jakarta will not be resolved. </span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Most metropolitan areas in the world with the population of over 10 million have operated metros or mass rapid transits for years. Jakarta is the largest city in the world without a metro. Jakarta just started the construction of MRT in September 2015. The completion of MRT in Jakarta in the next few more years is expected to reduce the traffic congestion in Jakarta.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_i4WJfdmr8n-eGtM26JBjeo4Gup_Is3VEdSnlw_8P06DnNFIWjPX7HUcO6oc69G88RwrNZ3HKmqU7yiVJdzg7DlWXg-rvArXrBWp64cJpG7hJIpdxnQqBl7ygb8Q727Njuctmy0q-j5w/s1600/Jakarta+night+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_i4WJfdmr8n-eGtM26JBjeo4Gup_Is3VEdSnlw_8P06DnNFIWjPX7HUcO6oc69G88RwrNZ3HKmqU7yiVJdzg7DlWXg-rvArXrBWp64cJpG7hJIpdxnQqBl7ygb8Q727Njuctmy0q-j5w/s640/Jakarta+night+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: "helveticaneue" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><br />
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: HelveticaNeue, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Jakarta lies in a lowland area with 13 rivers. All tributaries and basin areas of these 13 rivers are located in the peripheries of the megacity,</span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> strongly associated with the floods in Jakarta. I</span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">ndustrial parks and new towns</span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> were built in the peripheries of Jakarta and many of them have converted water catchment areas, green areas and wetlands. Such land conversions have affected the severity of flooding in Jakarta. Floods have become a threat and bring increasing woes for Jakarta residents every year.</span></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: HelveticaNeue, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">In 2007, the worst floods in memory inundated about 70% of Jakarta, killed at least 57 people and sent about 450,000 fleeing their houses. In 2012, floods inundated hundreds of homes along major Jakarta waterways and displaced 2,430 people. In 2013, many parts of Jakarta were inundated following heavy rain and killed at least 20 people and sent at least 33,502 fleeing their houses. In 2015, the flood inundated many parts of the Megacity of Jakarta and caused an estimated losses of $234 million. In August 2016, eight sub-districts in South Jakarta and East Jakarta were flooded affecting 10,538 households. </span><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Annual flooding in Jakarta is strong evidence that rapid urbanization in Jakarta must be reduced.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #3c3a3a; font-family: HelveticaNeue, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">As long as Jakarta remains the primary growth machine of the nation, the economic growth of Jakarta will be strongly associated with the pace of Indonesia's economic growth, and will correspond to rapid urbanization in Jakarta. Indonesia will need to create more urban centers to reduce the burdens of Jakarta. In addition, rapid urbanization in Jakarta was generated by an influx of migrants from other parts of the nation, particularly from poor regions of Java Island. Poverty in rural areas of Java became a factor that pushed people from rural areas to urban ones. Alleviating rural poverty in Java will address not only the problems of the rural poor, but also reduce the pressures in and on Jakarta and its peripheries. </span></span></span></div>
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<br />
<script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br />
<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2016/11/problems-and-challenges-in-jakarta_20.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-52415573739762464372016-01-17T11:51:00.004-05:002017-06-07T09:25:34.883-05:00Flood Governance in Jakarta: The Role of CBOs in Mitigating Annual Floods<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSRsfFURrZFrAJV2o3M0CtVaJy45TQsXBG6v_t5nO12BhAxVf3S5pe0KG4fZa2Ozdlig9n9vi8E6rVGMI-MfC-JTDhdxYNbdrKez7HTnvcGMmg7bemyZEFIwifnvB8zI1XccCD71I_0Bc/s1600/Flood+bsirait.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSRsfFURrZFrAJV2o3M0CtVaJy45TQsXBG6v_t5nO12BhAxVf3S5pe0KG4fZa2Ozdlig9n9vi8E6rVGMI-MfC-JTDhdxYNbdrKez7HTnvcGMmg7bemyZEFIwifnvB8zI1XccCD71I_0Bc/s640/Flood+bsirait.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Flood in Kampung Muara. Photo courtesy of Bunga Sirait. <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/bungabunga/1589207296/in/photolist-3qr6XN-dMnjk5-r5aCKY-zPKHC-zmMDq-zEipK-jifrBm-zAx8d-jAsmMp-jpnLrA-jefE2g-3qZNWj-rkXiFf-vMdG1a-qp8mhT-zvtn4-duufwF-jLjMuP-dWrHtP-4AfgvZ-4UN2bF-4rXg67-4USfsS-qaojr3-dMkd43-khjKKL-4rTcXg-FGJfg-FGJkr-FGGzb-FGGG9-4rXfzu-bqV41P-kyqHDp-8t4U2M-4VwjGN-4USg1G-6nmD5Y-jAtWWC-eNk6G9-zTunN-4qZy6W-zCoQx-zGEFv-dMfZZv-jdC1X8-4qVtha-zmMzq-dMf8Na-zTJy2" target="_blank">Flick</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">This post was published by Middle East Institute on
January 7, 2016. Following is the link to the article: <a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods">http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods</a>. </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">In case of the link is not available, I copied the article as you can find
below. Thank you.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Batavia, the colonial
capital of the Dutch East Indies in the first half of the 20th century, was a
small urban area of approximately 150,000 residents. In the second half of the
20</span><sup><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">th</span></sup><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> century, Batavia became Jakarta, the
capital of independent Indonesia. Today, Jakarta is a megacity of 28 million
residents and is the largest and one of the most dynamic metropolitan areas in
Southeast Asia; it is also beset with most of the urban problems experienced
throughout the region. The increasing intensity of annual flooding is a major
concern that has plagued Jakarta over the past two decades. In 2007, the worst
floods in memory inundated about 70 percent of the city, killing at least 57
people and causing about 340,000 to flee their homes.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref1"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn1" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[1]</span></b></a> Moreover,
the estimated annual damage due to flooding in Jakarta is approximately USD 321
million.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref2"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn2" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[2]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The fall of Indonesia’s New Order regime in 1999 spurred the
process of democratization and decentralization.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref3"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn3" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[3]</span></b></a> Flood
governance is a relevant topic to decentralization efforts in Jakarta, as local
governments still lack full power as well as the means to implement effective
flood policy. This article discusses flood governance in Jakarta and examines
the role of community-based organizations in mitigating annual floods.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;">Mitigating Annual Floods
in Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Jakarta’s geographic location makes it prone to flooding: the
city lies in a lowland area through which 13 rivers flow; as a lowland area,
high tides in the coastal area have also generated floods.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref4"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn4" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[4]</span></b></a> All
tributaries and basin areas of these rivers cross the provincial administrative
regions of West Java and of Jakarta and cut across the local jurisdictional
boundaries of Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi, and Depok.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Jakarta experienced severe flooding as early as 1893.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref5"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn5" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[5]</span></b></a> All
floods in Jakarta in the first half of the 20</span><sup><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">th</span></sup><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> century were due to high rainfall and the breaking of
dikes and dams. In order to mitigate the floods, the Dutch colonial
administration established the Department of Public Works (Departement van
Burgelijke Openbare Werken) in 1918 and built the West Flood Canal in 1922.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref6"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn6" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[6]</span></b></a> However,
the flooding cycle in Jakarta changed from one flood every 3 to 5 years in the
first half of the 20</span><sup><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">th</span></sup><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> century to once per year since the
1970s.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref7"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn7" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[7]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Flooding has had critical impact on the infrastructure and
population of Jakarta. In 2008, floods inundated most parts of Jakarta
including the Sedyatmo toll road; and nearly 1,000 flights in the
Soekarno-Hatta International Airport were delayed or diverted while 259 were
cancelled. In 2012, floods submerged hundreds of homes along major Jakarta
waterways, including the Ciliwung, Pesanggrahan, Angke and Krukut rivers, and
displaced 2,430 people. In January 2013, many parts of Jakarta were
inundated following heavy rain; and, as reported by the National Disaster
Mitigation Agency (BNPB), the ensuing floods killed at least 20 people and
sent at least 33,502 fleeing their homes.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref8"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn8" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[8]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In the aftermath of these annual floods, the government normally
attempts to dredge the rivers and release floodwater as quickly as possible
into the sea via the East Flood Canal.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref9"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn9" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[9]</span></b></a> Construction
of the East Flood Canal began in the aftermath of major floods in 2002, and
reached the sea on December 31, 2009 after very slow progress due to the
complicated land acquisitions. The East Flood Canal has been considered the
most feasible means to prevent future flooding in Jakarta, but clearly cannot
prevent flooding entirely.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The government also pursued implementation of flood management
infrastructure such as the Jakarta Urgent Flood Mitigation Project/Jakarta
Emergency Dredging Initiative (JUFMP/JEDI) and initiated a program to improve
discharge and retention capacity of streams and floodplains.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref10"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn10" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[10]</span></b></a> Yet,
despite these efforts to alleviate flooding, the severity of flooding in many
parts of Jakarta has not decreased.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Recent flood management
approaches recognize the importance of community-based coping capacities and
adaptation strategies. Thus far, government responses to flooding in Jakarta
have lacked public participation, particularly in land acquisition and
environmental management. Despite democratization and decentralization measures
that began after 1999, no inclusive government or community empowerment has
been developed in Jakarta’s neighborhoods.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref11" name="_ftnref11" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn11" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[11]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; line-height: 16.2pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<strong><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;">Flood Governance and NGOs in Jakarta</span></strong><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In
order to coordinate disaster management, including floods, the Government of
Indonesia established the National Disaster Management Coordinating Board
(Bakornas) in 1979. This national body provides central coordination with
support from 13 ministries and the Armed Forces. Bakornas formulates disaster
management policy including prevention, mitigation, rescue, rehabilitation, and
reconstruction, and coordinates disaster management before, during, and after
disaster<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref12" name="_ftnref12" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn12" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[12]</span></b></a>.
Interagency disaster task forces were also created at the provincial level
(Satkorlak), the district level (Satlak), and the sub-district level (Satgas).<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref13" name="_ftnref13" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn13" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[13]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The end
of the New Order regime marked the transfer of various authorities and
responsibilities from the central government to local governments, including
provincial, districts, and municipalities.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref14" name="_ftnref14" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn14" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[14]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The Regional Autonomy Law 32/2004 and
the fiscal Decentralization Law 33/2004 stipulated that the local governments
have powers and responsibilities in all government administrative sectors
except for foreign policy, security and defense, monetary and fiscal matters,
and justice and religious affairs. These two laws have the potential for making
urban planning and development in Indonesia more locally managed.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref15" name="_ftnref15" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn15" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[15]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Nevertheless, flood governance
in Indonesia, particularly in Jakarta, remains a severe issue for the local
governments due to lack of authority and existence of slums and squatter
settlements along riverbanks. Despite the stipulations from the Regional
Autonomy Law 32/2004, the local governments do not have full power to mitigate
and manage floods. The central authorities still govern the largest and most
flood-prone river in Jakarta, the Ciliwung River. The Ministry of Environments
and Forestry maintains the responsibility for the upper watershed of the Ciliwung
River, and the Ministry of Public Works has the authority to improve the
river’s discharge and retention capacity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
slums and squatter settlements along Jakarta’s riverbanks also complicate flood
management efforts.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref16" name="_ftnref16" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn16" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[16]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The residents of Jakarta’s riverbanks
are the most vulnerable to flooding and the potential for flood damage.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref17" name="_ftnref17" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn17" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[17]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Yet, they have developed deep distrust
of local politicians over the years and will not follow their safety advice or
accept their material support. They also feel comfortable with and are
accustomed to the flooding and will continue to use their pragmatic coping
strategies.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref18" name="_ftnref18" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn18" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[18]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Indonesia’s
democratic transformation after the fall of the New Order regime sparked the
growth of social movements and non-government organizations (NGOs). Padawangi
and Douglass identified several NGOs on the Ciliwung River that serve residents
of Ciliwung riverbank including Ciliwung Merdeka, Telapak, Kota Kita, Yayasan
Tanggul Bencana Indonesia, Plan Indonesia, Lembaga Pemberdayaan Masyarakat
Jakarta, and several community initiatives such as Komunitas Ciliwung and
Gerakan Ciliwung Bersih.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref19" name="_ftnref19" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn19" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[19]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Negotiating
with riverbank residents to relocate to a safer place has been a big issue for
the Jakarta city administration. The city administration has proposed the
relocation of riverbank residents as a flood mitigation measure since the
1980s, but it has failed to materialize. The lack of financial support and
public resistance to the evictions has been blamed as reasons of the
initiative’s failure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Some
NGOs have offered alternative on-site resettlement to riverbank residents who
have resisted eviction. For example, Ciliwung Merdeka worked with the residents
of Ciliwung riverbank and sought their input for on-site resettlement proposals
and convinced skeptical residents about the benefits of multi-story housing.
The residents were fearful of losing their current accommodations and
livelihoods and were biased against multi-story housing. Ciliwung Merdeka held
weekly meetings with the Ciliwung riverbank residents since October 2012 and
discussed the plan on how to make a more habitable and secure environment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ciliwung
Merdeka also negotiated with the Jakarta city administration to obtain a waiver
of spatial planning regulations that require all buildings be located at least
164 feet from the river. The Jakarta city administration approved the request
and asked the settlement to move back at least 20 feet from the riverbank. The
area was to build a road<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref20" name="_ftnref20" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn20" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[20]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to allow fire trucks to pass 13 feet
from the riverbank and allow a 7-foot demarcation for green space.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref21" name="_ftnref21" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn21" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[21]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Based
on input from the residents and the advice of a group of experts, Ciliwung
Merdeka presented the proposal of Kampung Susun (elevated villages) to the
Jakarta city administration. In response, the Jakarta city administration asked
Ciliwung Merdeka to additionally provide a health care facility, a mosque, and
schools.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref22" name="_ftnref22" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn22" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[22]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The Jakarta city administration
eventually approved the proposal of Kampung Susun on September 16, 2015, and
the development project is expected to begin in 2016.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref23" name="_ftnref23" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn23" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[23]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Trash
management poses another issue for flood mitigation efforts. While Jakarta’s
resident produce 6,300 tons of garbage per day, only 5 percent of it is
recycled. The immense amount of garbage that builds up along Jakarta’s
riverbanks and canals causes additional flooding, and exacerbates sanitation
concerns that arise during floods. This reality has encouraged NGOs to push for
strengthened recycling measures. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0.25in 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ciliwung
Merdeka also had established a Compost House to recycle organic waste from
residents of three kampungs (villages) along Ciliwung riverbank including
Kampung Melayu, Kampung Pulo and Bukit Duri.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref24" name="_ftnref24" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn24" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[24]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Squatters living in three kampungs
along Ciliwung riverbank received around 10 Rupiah per every kilogram of
organic trash they collected.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="_ftnref25" name="_ftnref25" style="outline: 0px;"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn25" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[25]</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The recycling program was also
intended to raise residents’ awareness about the importance of trash management
and discourage dumping in the Ciliwung River.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">NGOs have also played a critical role in flood response. During
floods, Ciliwung Merdeka’s rescue and relief efforts have often proven to be
faster than those of the government. The residents were able to maintain flood
rescue and relief efforts on their own.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref26"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn26" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[26]</span></b></a>They
succeeded in moving their possessions and electronic equipment to higher ground
and evacuating children and the elderly to mosques.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref28"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftn28" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57;">[27]</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.2pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<b><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; letter-spacing: 0.35pt;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Flood governance in Jakarta is a complicated issue, especially
since it also entails dealing with the existence of slums and squatter
settlements in riverbanks. The 350,000 residents of Jakarta’s riverbanks are
vulnerable to floods but have low trust in the government. They are also
accustomed to dumping trash into the river. The role of NGOs is very important
in managing and mitigating floods in many ways: they empower and collaborate
with residents in order to improve the living environment; mediate communication
between the local government and residents; and also educate residents about
the importance of trash management and community-led rescue efforts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">An effective flood mitigation and management in Indonesia
particularly in megacities such as Jakarta requires a strong community
participation particularly from the riverbank residents. The residents of slums
and squatter settlements in riverbanks are the players of the informal sector
who play an important role in the process of urban transformation in Indonesian
cities including Jakarta. Flood governance in Jakarta will not succeed without
the empowerment and the participation of the riverbank residents. The
government needs to work alongside NGOs to promote public participation in
community-based coping capacities / adaptation strategies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Flood governance in Indonesian cities will also require a
transfer responsibility of governing watersheds and rivers from the central
government to the local governments. The latter need to have full power to
govern the rivers in their respective areas. Despite the stipulations from the
Regional Autonomy Law 32/2004, the central authorities still have full power to
govern the largest and most flood-prone river in Jakarta and maintains the
responsibility for the upper watershed of the Ciliwung River. The central
government needs to empower the local governments in governing rivers and the
watersheds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Reference</span></b><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">
</span><br />
<hr align="left" noshade="" size="0" style="color: #adaaa3;" width="33%" />
<span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn1"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref1" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[1]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
flood occurred from the prolonged and heavy rain in a two-week period from
January 28, 2007 to February 2, 2007. Liu et al. (2007). Regional frequency
analysis of extreme rainfall events in Jakarta. <i>Natural Hazards </i>75:
1075-1104.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn2"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref2" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[2]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Y.
Budiyono, J. Aerts, J., Brinkman, M.A. Marfai, and P. Ward, “Flood risk
assessment for delta mega-cities: A case study of Jakarta,” <i>Natural
Hazards</i> 75 (2015), pp. 389-413.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn3"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref3" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[3]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Deden
Rukmana, “The change and transformation of Indonesian spatial planning after
Suharto’s New Order regime: The case of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area,”<i>International
Planning Studies </i>20:4 (2015), pp. 350-370.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn4"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref4" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[4]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> M.A.
Marfai, A.B. Sekaranom, and P. Ward, “Community responses and adaptation
strategies toward flood hazard in Jakarta, Indonesia,” Natural Hazards 75
(2015), pp. 1127-1144.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn5"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref5" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[5]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Restu
Gunawan, Gagalnya sistem kanal: Pengendalian banjir Jakarta dari masa ke masa (<i>The
failure of canal systems: The history of flood management in Jakarta</i>)
(Jakarta: Penerbit Kompas, 2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn6"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref6" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[6]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Ien
Aje, Banjir di Jakarta Tempo Doeloe (<i>The early years of floods in Jakarta)</i>(2013), <a href="https://www.facebook.com/notes/ien-aje/banjir-di-jakarta-tempo-doeloe/10151331859093444"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">https://www.facebook.com/notes/ien-aje/banjir-di-jakarta-tempo-doeloe/10151331859093444</span></b></a><i>.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn7"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref7" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[7]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Gunawan
(2010) reported the floods in 1970, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977. The flood in
January 1976 sent about 29,000 fleeing their houses. The next big floods
occurred in May 1980 and December 1981 that displaced 27,000 people and 200,000
people respectively. The December 1981 flood also killed 9 people (Gunawan
2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn8"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref8" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[8]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Deden
Rukmana, “The Megacity of Jakarta: Problems, challenges and planning efforts,”
Indonesia Urban Studies, March 2014,<a href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2014/03/the-megacity-of-jakarta-problems.html"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2014/03/the-megacity-of-jakarta-problems.html</span></b></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn9"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref9" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[9]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> L.
T. Tambun and Nirmala Ronna, “Jokowi: I am not a God who can solve flooding
instantly”. <i>The Jakarta Globe</i>, November 19, 2012.<a href="http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/archive/jokowi-im-not-a-god-who-can-solve-flooding-instantly/"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/archive/jokowi-im-not-a-god-who-can-s...</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn10"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref10" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[10]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Rita
Padawangi and Mike Douglass, “Water, water everywhere: Toward participatory
solutions to chronic urban flooding in Jakarta,” <i>Pacific Affairs</i> 88:3
(2015), pp. 517-550.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn11"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref11" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[11]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Roanne
Van Voorst, “Formal and informal flood governance in Jakarta,” <i>Habitat
International</i>, August 23, 2015, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.08.023"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://dx.doi.org/10.10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.08.023</span></b></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn12"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref12" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[12]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Bakornas
is still in effect and has coordinated and handled emergency relief operations
including earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, volcano eruptions, plane crashes, etc.
Bakornas was reorganized in January 2005 after their poor coordination and
management on the emergency relief operations during the tsunami and earthquake
in Aceh in December 2004.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn13"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref13" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[13]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Roanne
Van Voorst, “Formal and informal flood governance in Jakarta,” <i>Habitat
International</i>, August 23, 2015, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.08.02"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://dx.doi.org/10.10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.08.02</span></b></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn14"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref14" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[14]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Deden
Rukmana, “The change and transformation of Indonesian spatial planning after
Suharto’s New Order regime: The case of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area,”<i>International
Planning Studies </i>20: 4 (2015), pp. 350-370.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn15"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref15" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[15]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Tommy
Firman, “In search of a governance institution model for Jakarta Metropolitan
Area (JMA) under Indonesia’s New Decentralization Policy: Old problem, new
challenges,” <i>Public Administration and Development </i>28 (2008),
pp. 1-11.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn19"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref19" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[19]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Rita
Padawangi and Mike Douglass, “Water, water everywhere: Toward participatory
solutions to chronic urban flooding in Jakarta,” <i>Pacific Affairs</i> 88:3
(2015), pp. 517-550.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn20"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref20" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[20]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Road
construction in Jakarta is the responsibility of the city government.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn21"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref21" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[21]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Rulistia,
N.D. “Changing slums into multistory kampong”. <i>The Jakarta Post</i>,
November 3, 2012. <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/11/03/changing-slums-multistory-kampung.html"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/11/03/changing-slums-multistory-...</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn22"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref22" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[22]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Wardhani,
D.A. “Ahok reopens dialogue, revives ‘kampung susun’ idea”. <i>The Jakarta
Post</i>, September 21, 2015.<a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/09/21/ahok-reopens-dialogue-revives-kampung-susun-idea.html"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/09/21/ahok-reopens-dialogue-revi...</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn23"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref23" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[23]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Belarminus,
R. “Ahok setujui gagasan Kampung Susun dari Ciliwung Merdeka (Governor Ahok
approves the idea of Kampung Susun from Ciliwung Merdeka)”.<i>The Daily Kompas</i>,
September 26, 2015,<a href="http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2015/09/26/21295451/Ahok.Setujui.Gagasan.Kampung.Susun.dari.Ciliwung.Merdeka"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2015/09/26/21295451/Ahok.Setujui.Gagasan.Kampung.Susun.dari.Ciliwung.Merdeka</span></b></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn24"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref24" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[24]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Rita
Padawangi and Mike Douglass, “Water, water everywhere: Toward participatory solutions
to chronic urban flooding in Jakarta,” <i>Pacific Affairs</i> 88:3
(2015), pp. 517-550.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn25"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref25" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[25]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Adh.
“Ciliwung riverbank residents to start ‘cash for trash’ project”. <i>The
Jakarta Post</i>, March 23, 2009. <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/23/ciliwung-riverbank-residents-start-%E2%80%98cash-trash%E2%80%99-project.html"><b><span style="color: #092c57;">http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/23/ciliwung-riverbank-residen...</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn26"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref26" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[26]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> Rita
Padawangi and Mike Douglass, “Water, water everywhere: Toward participatory
solutions to chronic urban flooding in Jakarta,” <i>Pacific Affairs</i> 88:3
(2015), pp. 517-550.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .25in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn28"></a><a href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/flood-governance-jakarta-role-community-based-organizations-mitigating-annual-floods#_ftnref28" title=""><b><span style="color: #092c57; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">[27]</span></b></a><span style="color: #1e1e1e; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> M.A.
Marfai, A.B. Sekaranom, and P. Ward, “Community responses and adaptation
strategies toward flood hazard in Jakarta, Indonesia,” <i>Natural Hazards </i>75
(2015), pp. 1127-1144.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br />
<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2016/01/flood-governance-in-jakarta-role-of.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-87074006960235490942015-09-08T14:00:00.001-05:002017-05-03T14:51:11.839-05:00The Transformation of Indonesian Housing Policies<span style="font-family: inherit;">Indonesia, with a population of over 250 million, has been experiencing rapid urbanization in the last few decades. This rapid urbanization has caused many problems in Indonesian cities. The issue of housing provision for the urban poor in many cities become more complicated. A majority of the urban poor cannot afford to buy housing provided by either the State Housing Provider Agency (PERUMNAS) or private developers due to their low and unstable income. This condition forces them to various individual solutions including self-built inappropriate houses and squatting in slums and squatter settlements (Sudarmo 1997; Tunas and Peresthu 2010).</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9rZ45eFyEnLG6ggcfvsxwcXVpwOF3L-vDw8H6S7wTIaA4MACbvB1wI2qMIa3A0cAfDb9wiUUeOgs1Oi-vyWQFgLgzIp6EQSD0HYXaZUd_NEe_5FNSLi-dQB0Pizf_L7-4Q4kuKdQ1TR0/s1600/Skyline+Jakarta+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9rZ45eFyEnLG6ggcfvsxwcXVpwOF3L-vDw8H6S7wTIaA4MACbvB1wI2qMIa3A0cAfDb9wiUUeOgs1Oi-vyWQFgLgzIp6EQSD0HYXaZUd_NEe_5FNSLi-dQB0Pizf_L7-4Q4kuKdQ1TR0/s640/Skyline+Jakarta+2014.jpg" width="640"></a></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">In Indonesian cities, most poor residents live in spontaneous informal settlements referred to as kampung. Kampungs are scattered throughout the city and have substandard infrastructure, small plots of land for each dwelling and low quality of building structure and materials. Most of the dwellings in kampungs are constructed gradually by the residents from permanent and non-permanent materials depending largely on what the residents can afford (Tunas and Peresthu 2010). Poor kampung residents are marginalized urban residents that push their way to occupy state land such as disposal sites, riverbanks, and railway tracks and private unoccupied land and illegally construct their dwellings (Winayanti and Lang 2004).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />
Indonesia has been implementing three housing policies including self-help housing policy such as the Kampung Improvement Program (KIP), Community-based Housing Development (P2BPK) and Self-help Housing Assistance (BSPS); the PERUMNAS Program which is the national program for public housing development; and the cross subsidy housing policy (Tunas and Peresthu 2010; Minnery et al 2013). This post discusses all three housing policies and the transformation of Indonesia’s housing policies after the fall of Suharto’s authoritative regime. The discussion also includes the housing finance, the interplay of the state and the market in housing outcome and the extent to which the three housing policies have addressed the housing provision for the urban poor in Indonesia. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />
<b>Transformation and Democratization of the Indonesian
Government</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Indonesia
proclaimed its independence from the Dutch in August 1945 and has experienced a
period of revolutionary struggle for independence (1945-1949), a period of
democratic liberalism and parliamentarism (1950-1957) and a period of
authoritarian rules under Sukarno’s Guided Democracy (1959-1965) and the New
Order Regime (1966-1998). </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: 0.5in;">The
New Order Regime led by General Suharto was established in 1966 in the wake of
the abortive communist coup of 30 September 1965. President Sukarno was accused
of being involved in the coup since he refused to condemn the Indonesian
Communist Party (Anwar 2005). A year after the failing coup, President Sukarno
resigned and then Suharto took power and started his authoritarian government
for more than thirty years.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
MPR (People’s Consultative Assembly) and the DPR (Parliament) were nothing more
than a rubber stamp for the Suharto government. Political participation was
restricted and the electoral system was modified in favor of the continuation
of the Suharto government. Such political restriction and electoral system were
justified as necessary for stability and economic development. The Suharto
government was able to crush down all oppositions and ban all political
activities from universities. Media censorship was imposed and the critics of
the government were imprisoned or economically and socially marginalized (Anwar
2005).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Under
the New Order Regime, Indonesia had enjoyed steady economic growth. Economic
growth was accompanied by a reduction in the percentage of the population living
under the poverty line (Firman 1999). From 40% in 1976, the levels declined to
the official level of 11.3% in 1996.</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">In
1996 6.9 million people in urban areas and 15.7 million people in rural areas
lived under the poverty line. </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: 0.5in;">The
economic development also led the emergence of a new middle class and
eventually the proliferation of non-governmental organizations, policy advisory
institutions and think tanks. These NGOs provided policy advocacy and legal
aids to communities and also played an important role in reducing the dominance
of the state over society.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Serious
economic and monetary crises hit many Asian countries; in July 1997 and
Indonesia experienced the worst impact of the crisis (Anwar 2005; Firman 2002;
Winarso and Firman 2002). The failure of the New Order regime to address the
impacts of the economic and monetary crisis led to massive protests and riots
in many places. President Suharto eventually resigned on 21 May 1998 and it
ended his authoritarian rule after 32 years in power.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
fall of the New Order regime </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">bring a
change in government but also, more importantly, led to a new era of <i>reformasi</i>, or reform that dismantles the
authoritarian political structure and replaces it with a more pluralistic and
accountable system of government. The <i>reformasi</i>
movement also seeks to get rid of economic monopolies, fight corruption,
collusion and nepotism and promote accountable and clean government (Anwar
2005).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">reformasi</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> movement witnessed the
liberalization of political parties’ establishment and their participation in
elections. After Suharto’s New Order regime, political activities were
liberalized and the freedoms of speech and association were fully assured
(Nomura 2007). </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Indonesian parliament passed a new
law on regional autonomy (The Regional Autonomy Law 32/2004) and a new law on
fiscal decentralization (The Fiscal Decentralization Law 33/2004). In the new
regional autonomy law, the head of provincial government and the head of
district are directly elected by the people rather than by the local councils.
In addition, the provincial government is authorized to coordinate the district
governments.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Regional Autonomy
Law 32/2004 abolishes the hierarchy between center, provincial and district
governments. Most of the administrative affairs including spatial planning,
health, education, public works, and housing are transferred from the central
government to the local government. The central government remains responsible
for five affairs including defense, international affairs, fiscal and monetary
affairs, justice and religious affairs.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The new laws on
regional autonomy and fiscal decentralization offer a shift of several
government functions and responsibilities from central to local government and
create a greater role of the local governments, including Provincial, Districts
(</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Kabupaten</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">) and Municipalities (</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Kota</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">), in several important functions.
These new laws have the potential for making housing provision urban planning
and development in Indonesia more locally managed (Firman 2003; 2008).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The main provision of
the new Decentralization Law involves the sources of the local government’s
income including its own income (PADS), an equalization grant (dana
perimbangan) which replaces the central government grant to lower level
government, and a special allocation which is granted by the central government
to the selected districts or provinces on the basis of their special needs. The
local government is also entitled to revenue sharing from land and building
taxes and natural resource utilization.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Reformasi also
witnessed two other fundamental government changes: the abolition of the
military (ABRI) presence in the parliament (Law 22/2003) and the direct
presidential election. The national police (POLRI) was separated from ABRI and
the police is fully responsible for the internal security. The military was
renamed from ABRI to </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Tentara National
Indonesia</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> (TNI) and focused only on the national defense.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">After the fall of the
New Order Regime, there have been four amendments to the Indonesian
Constitution. The People’s Consultative Assembly made these amendments in its
annual assembles from 1999 to 2002. The president and vice president hold their
positions for a five-year period and afterwards can be re-elected for only
another five-year period as stipulated in the first amendment. The direct
presidential election is the result of the third amendment in November 2001.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZ_9HbOD5KDdXVTgEY-vAqqArEvLjQavL-L4HcXwPb6eJ4QgRaAlaaZif5WemoXLz_EUT49XdGd4umP8UImiQbcw9vlYi7RrdUKaScj3jEKGmyxEv6ua8TGxoN9hXp2wmJVDPmKnV1_gQ/s1600/Kampung+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZ_9HbOD5KDdXVTgEY-vAqqArEvLjQavL-L4HcXwPb6eJ4QgRaAlaaZif5WemoXLz_EUT49XdGd4umP8UImiQbcw9vlYi7RrdUKaScj3jEKGmyxEv6ua8TGxoN9hXp2wmJVDPmKnV1_gQ/s640/Kampung+2014.jpg" width="640"></a></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Transformation
of the Indonesian Housing Policies</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">One of the amendments
to the Indonesian constitution after the fall of the New Order regime is a new
provision of housing in a decent and healthy neighborhood (Amendment of 1945
Constitution, Article 28H) for Indonesian citizens. Every Indonesian citizen is
entitled to housing in a decent and healthy community. The amendment was made
during the plenary session of the People’s Consultative Assembly in August
2000.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The New Order regime
enacted the first law on housing and settlement areas in 1992. The Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 4/1992 set the ground rules for housing provision and
settlement areas in Indonesia and reflected the authoritarian rule of the New
Order regime. The new system of government in </span><st1:country-region style="text-indent: 0.5in;" w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> after the fall of the New
Order regime enacted a more democratic and accountable institutional setting.
The Housing and Settlement Areas Law 4/1992 was no longer relevant with the new
system of government. The new Housing and Settlement Areas Law was enacted in January
2011 and replaced the Housing and Settlement Areas Law 4/1992.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The new Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 1/2011 reflects the new system of government in Indonesia,
particularly the new decentralization laws and the enthusiasm of Indonesian
people for a more transparent and accountable system of government. This new
law stipulates some provisions that are not included in the Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 4/1992.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 1/2011 have a few new principles of the housing provision
that were not included in the previous law including welfare, nationalism,
collaboration, harmony, and integration. These new principles is included in
the new law presumably to correspond with the enthusiasm of Indonesian people
for a more transparent and accountable system of government.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 1/2011 provides a legal framework to advance the housing
provision for low-income residents (Mungkasa 2012). The new Housing and
Settlement Areas Law stipulates the housing subsidy and assistances for
low-income residents. The government is mandated to assist low-income residents
in tax incentives, permits insurances, land and public utilities provisions, and
land title registrations.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Housing and
Settlement Areas Law stipulates the provincial and local governments have a
greater level of responsibility and authority on the housing provision than the
central government does (Mungkasa 2012). The provincial and local governments
have the authority to collect housing data, empower housing stakeholders,
coordinate the usage of environment-friendly technology and design, and provide
lands for housing. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 1/2011 also provides the provision of addressing slum
areas. The provincial and local governments are mandated to identify and
delineate slum areas, prevent the expansion of slum areas and upgrade the
quality of life in slum areas. According to the Article 97 of the Housing and
Settlement Areas Law 1/2011, the upgrading of slum areas includes restoration, revitalization
and resettlement of slum areas. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">F</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">ive types of housing
are identified in the Housing and Settlement Areas Law 1/2011 including
commercial housing, public housing, self-built housing, special housing and
state housing. Commercial housing is built by developers for profit. Public
housing is housing units built for the poor. Self-built housing is housing
units built by residents individually or collectively with other residents.
Special housing is housing units built for a special purpose. State housing is
housing units owned and operated by the government. Special and state housings
are built by the government.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Another important provision
of the Housing and Settlement Areas Laws 1/2011 is the sanction provision for
housing provision violations. The sanctions for housing provision violations include
administrative sanctions and criminal sanctions. This law stipulates nineteen
types of administrative sanctions such as written warning, revocation of
building permit, revocation of business license, order of houses demolition,
and closure of the location. These administrative sanctions were not stipulated
in the previous law. The criminal sanctions in the new law include
imprisonments up to 5 years and penalties up to Rp. 50,000,000,000.00 (approximately
US$ 416,666.67). The criminal sanctions in the previous law were imprisonments
up to 2 years and penalties up to approximately US$ 1,666.67. </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></b>
<b style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Indonesian Housing Policies</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">This section discusses housing
policies in Indonesia including self-help housing, public housing, and the
segmentation of housing market policies. According to the National Indonesian
Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS), the dominant form of housing production in
Indonesia is self-built housing which accounted for more than 70% of houses produced
between 2002 and 2007 (Monkkonen 2013; Mungkasa 2012). The dominance of
self-built housing in Indonesia is primarily due to the dynamic informal
housing sector in Indonesia (Crane et al 1997; Leaf 1993; Struyk et al 1990).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The informal housing sector in
Indonesia takes place mostly in Indonesian kampungs (Leaf 1993; Tunas and
Peresthu 2010). Kampung is unplanned, incrementally developed areas and
frequently associated with slums (Winarso 2010). Informal and self-built
housing in Indonesian kampungs constitutes the majority of new housing starts
in Indonesia (Monkkonen 2013). More than forty percent of new houses in the
Metropolitan Jakarta between 2002 and 2007 were self-built. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></i>
<i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Self-help Housing</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
informal housing sector or self-help housing has become an integral part of the
urban landscape in many developing countries including Indonesia. Such informal
settlements also accommodate millions of urban poor people without access to
public housing (Biderman et al 2008; Brueckner and Selod 2009; Tunas and
Peresthu 2010). Indonesian kampungs also house most the poor people in
Indonesian cities with a number of urban features including high density, poor
living conditions, and poor infrastructure and public facilities (Tunas and
Peresthu 2010; Winayanti and Lang 2004).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Indonesia
has been implementing three self-help housing policies including the Kampung
Improvement Programme (KIP), the Community-based Housing Development program (P2BPK), and the Self-help Housing Assistance (BSPS). The KIP was launched in
1969 by the Governor of Jakarta, then Ali Sadikin to upgrade living conditions in
Jakarta’s kampungs. The KIP was the world’s first urban slums upgrading project
and funded by the World Bank until 1982 (Juliman and Durrendon 2006). The
program was to ensure the retention and improvement of existing housing stock
and to provide serviced sites for poor families for constructing new housing
for themselves using self-help methods (Silver 2008; Tunas and Peresthu 2010).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
KIP undertook the upgrading of roads and footpaths, improved drainage, enhanced
water supply, sanitation, and solid waste disposal, and the building of schools
and local health clinics (Garr 1989; Tunas and Peresthu 2010; Winayanti and
Lang 2004). </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">In the 1980s, the KIP was reconfigured into the Community
Infrastructure Program as part of the Integrated Urban Infrastructure
Development Programme (IUIDP). The new KIP consisted of three approaches
including the improvement of physical quality (</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Bina Lingkungan</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">), the improvement of quality of life (</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Bina Manusia</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">) and the improvement of the
economy (</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Bina Usaha</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">) (Silver 2007;
Tunas and Peresthu 2010).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The community-based housing development or </span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Pembangunan Perumahan Bertumpu pada
Komunitas</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> (P2BPK), is a housing provision program that promotes informal
and community-based housing delivery. This program encourages active
participation of communities in mobilizing resources including finance and labor
to lower housing costs. </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">P2BPK was inspired by a project sponsored by UNCHS and UNDP
in 1988. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Ministry of Public Housing launched the Self-help Housing Assistance, </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">known as BSPS for initials in Bahasa Indonesia, </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">in 2006 (Heripoerwanto 2012). The BSPS is aimed to assist low-income households in urban and rural areas in Indonesia. The Ministry of Public Housing Regulation 14/2011 stipulates three scopes of the BSPS including the development of new houses, the improvement of house quality, and the development of public infrastructure and utilities. The types of assistance include cash assistance and building materials.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The Ministry of
Public Housing Regulation 14/2011 also stipulates the BSPS recipient criteria
including Indonesian citizens, living below the poverty line, married, owning a
land title and having a bank account. The number of built or improved housing
units and built public infrastructure and utilities by the BSPS in Indonesia
increased from 3,550 in 2006 to 16,403 units in 2011 (Heripoerwanto 2012).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></i>
<i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Public Housing</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
public housing program in Indonesia started in the 1950s when a few
government ministries and housing cooperative created by local governments
built low-cost housings. This approach generated a handful of new housing units
and only targeted to civil service corps (Silver 2008). Following a National
Housing Workshop in 1974, the Government of Indonesia established three key
institutions to address housing problems including the National Housing
Authority (</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Badan Kebijaksanaan Perumahan
Nasional</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">) which is responsible for formulating the national housing policy,
the PERUMNAS Corporation which is responsible for providing low-cost housing in
Indonesian urban areas; and the State Savings Bank (Silver 2007; Tunas and
Peresthu 2010; UN Habitat 2008).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
PERUMNAS program is the national public housing programme run by the PERUMNAS
Corporation. The program is supported and subsidized by the State Savings Bank,
known as BTN for initials in Bahasa Indonesia. The BTN first offered loans for
house purchase in 1976 and in the 1980s became central to the housing finance
market particularly for low- and middle-income households. Two-thirds of the
BTN’s lending funds derived from the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of
Indonesia at rates well below market levels (Lee 1996).</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
PERUMNAS program through the BTN offered loans up to 20 years with low
interest rates of 8.5% to 14% with a 10% down payment (Tunas and Peresthu
2010). The program is aimed to provide low-cost housing units for low- and
middle-class-income households with a monthly income of less than Rp. 1.5
million or US$125. The PERUMNAS program built housing units on different size
lots from 18 square meters to 36 square meters. The dimensions of the house are
based on the minimum requirements for individual space, good lighting and air
circulation. The PERUMNAS program also offers a ready-to-build land parcel on
different size lots from 54 square meters to 72 square meters for people who
prefer to build a house on their own way (Tunas and Peresthu 2010).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Those
who are eligible for loans from the BTN are those who have formal collateral
(Sastrosasmita and Amin 1990). About eighty percent of BTN borrowers are
government employees. Civil servants can provide formal collateral and are
considered better risks. Those who are working in informal sectors and cannot
show any formal collateral are not eligible for loans from the PERUMNAS
program. </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></i>
<i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Cross Subsidy</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
Government of Indonesia through three ministries including the Ministry of Home
Affairs, the Ministry of Public Housing and the Ministry of Public Works issued
a joint decree of the socially integrated housing policy (</span><i style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Lingkungan Hunian Berimbang</i><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">) on November 16, 1992. The policy is a
cross subsidy program and an instrument for balancing segmentation in the
housing market and linking the growing number of high end houses to provision
of more low-cost houses (Silver 2008; Yuniati 2013).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
socially integrated housing policy has two main objectives including producing
more affordable houses and encouraging more socially integrated housing
development through mixed-income residential areas (Mungkasa 2013; Tunas and
Darmoyono 2014; Yuniati 2013). This policy commonly referred to as 1:3:6 policy
requires developers of luxury housing to build three medium and six low-cost
housing units for every unit of luxury house they built (Silver 2008; Tunas and
Darmoyono 2014).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
policy stipulates that low-cost housing units should be built on the same site
as medium and luxury housing units. However, in practice this policy has not
been fully enforced (Widoyoko 2007). Enforcement of this policy was difficult
because the policy was only a ministerial decree and it was commonplace for the
low-cost units to be built after the luxury and medium housing units were
completed (Mungkasa 2013; Silver 2008). The developers of a luxury waterfront
community of Pantai Indah Kapuk, North Jakarta built more than 1,000 luxury and
medium housing units before they even began their work on low-cost apartments.
Due to the fiscal crisis, the developers discontinued the development of
low-cost apartments (Silver 2008). In addition, many developers built luxury
and medium housing units first and built low-cost housing units later on
different sites (Tunas and Darmoyono 2014).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The
1:3:6 policy was not easy to implement. In most cases, the developers
negotiated the housing compositions with local governments and even replaced
low-cost housing units with public facilities and infrastructure development.
The developers had no longer obligations to provide low-cost housing units
(Tunas and Darmoyono 2014). The Ministry of Public Housing identified only five
housing projects that fully implemented the 1:3:6 policy including Telaga
Kahuripan in Bogor Regency (750 ha), Bukit Semarang Baru in Semarang Regency
(1,250 ha), Bukit Baruga in Makassar (1,000 ha), Driyorejo in Gresik Regency,
and Kurnia Jaya in Batam (100 ha) (Mungkasa 2013).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Due
to an ineffective implementation of the 1:3:6 policy, the Minister of Public
Housing amended the cross subsidy policy in May 2012. The new policy of cross
subsidy (The Minister of Public Housing Regulation 10/2012 stipulates that
developers are required to build two medium and three low-cost housing units
for every unit of luxury house they build. The sites of low-cost housing units
should also account for a minimum of 25% of the total residential project
areas. </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></b>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Tunas, Devisari and Andrea
Peresthu. 2010. ‘The Self-help Housing in Indonesia: The Only Option for the
Poor?’ </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Habitat International, </i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">34:
315-322</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: xx-small; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tunas, Devisari and Laksmi
Darmoyono. 2014. ‘Indonesian Housing Development amidst Socioeconomic
Transformation‘ in Jonn Doling and Richard Ronald (eds), <i>Housing East Asia: Socioeconomic and Demographic Challenges, </i>pp.
91-115. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan<i> <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">UN
Habitat, 2003. Slums of the world: the face of urban poverty in the new
millennium? UN Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: xx-small; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">UN Habitat. 2008. ‘The Role
of Government in the Housing Market’. Nairobi: UN-Habitat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Winarso, Haryo and Tommy Firman. 2002. ‘Residential
land development in Jabotabek, Indonesia: triggering economic crisis?’ </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Habitat
International </i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">26: 487-506</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Winarso,
Haryo. 2010. Urban dualism in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area. In A. Sorensen and
J. Okata (eds.), Megacities: Urban Form, Governance and Sustainability. pp.
163-190. Springer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: xx-small; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Winayanti, Lana and Heracles
Lang. 2004. ‘Provision of Urban Services in an Informal Settlement: A Case
Study of Kampung Penas Tanggul, Jakarta’, <i>Habitat
International, </i>28: 41-65<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">World
Bank. 2011. Indonesia Urbanization Review. The World Bank, Washington, DC.</span></div>
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<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2015/09/the-transformation-of-indonesian.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-1359994998307141272015-03-02T18:34:00.003-05:002017-05-03T14:53:40.545-05:00The Change and Transformation of Indonesian Spatial Planning <blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>On February 9, 2015, my newest article was published by International Planning Studies and available online <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13563475.2015.1008723#abstract" target="_blank">here</a>. The article title is "The change and transformation of Indonesian spatial planning after Suharto's New Order Regime: The case of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area". The New Order Regime enacted the first law on spatial planning - the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992. The new system of Indonesian government after the fall of the New Order Regime enacted a new spatial planing law - the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007. The article examines the extent to which the change and transformation of spatial planning practices has take place in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA). The data sources for the article include federal and local spatial planning documents and interviews with ten people including planners and academicians. </i><i>This blog post provides a description of the Spatial Planning Laws 24/1992 and 26/2007 and a summary of the changes of spatial planning practice in the JMA.</i></span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>The Spatial Planning Law 24/1992</b> </span><br />
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In response to the growing need for coordinating the issues of spatial plans implementation, in November 1989, the Indonesia government formed a coordinating team of national spatial planners (Keppres 57/1989) which was led by the Minister of National Planning. This team was assigned to develop a set of guidelines for implementing spatial plans. The coordinating team of spatial plan implementation also prepared a spatial planning bill which then was passed by the Indonesian parliament in October 1992 and became the first Indonesian spatial planning law, The Spatial Planning Law 24/1992.<br />
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Spatial planning is defined by the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992 as plan-making process (proses perencanaan tata ruang), plan implementation (pemanfaatan ruang), and development control (pengendalian pemanfaatan ruang). The provision of the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992 includes the guidelines of the plan-making process, plan implementation and development control for national, provincial and local levels.<br />
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The Spatial Planning Law 24/1992 stipulates the hierarchical spatial planning in Indonesia consisting of national spatial plan (RTRW Nasional), provincial spatial plans (RTRW Propinsi) and district spatial plans (RTRW Kabupaten and RTRW Kotamadya). All levels of government are required to make spatial plans for directing development in their respective regions. The spatial plan periods of each level of government are different. The periods of the national spatial plan, provincial spatial plans and district spatial plans are 25 years, 15 years and 10 years respectively. All levels of spatial plans shall be evaluated every 5 years.<br />
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<b>The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007</b><br />
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The fundamental institutional changes in Indonesia following the fall of the New Order Regime also affected the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992. This law was considered to be no longer relevant with new institutional settings, particularly with the new decentralization laws. This law was also poorly implemented and considered to be ineffective. The Spatial Law 24/1992 had no sanction provisions for spatial plan violations.<br />
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The Indonesian parliament passed the bill of spatial planning in April 2007 and replaced the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992. The new law, the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007, contains some provisions that are not included in the previous law. In accordance with the new decentralization laws, the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 stipulates explicitly the authority of provincial governments (pemerintah propinsi) and of district governments (pemerintah kabupaten and pemerintah kota) in spatial planning. Such provision was not stipulated in the previous spatial planning law. The provincial and district governments have a broader authority in spatial planning. The provincial or district governments can stipulate new components in their spatial plan that are not stipulated in the higher level of spatial plans .<br />
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The planning periods of national spatial plans (RTRW Nasional), provincial spatial plans (RTRW Propinsi) and district spatial plans (RTRW Kabupaten and RTRW Kotamadya) in the Spatial Plan 26/2007 differ from those in the Spatial Plan 24/1992. The planning periods of each level of governments are 20 years. The changes of planning periods were made to be consistent with the National Development and Planning System Law 25/2004. The Law 25/2004 stipulates that each level of government is required to prepare a long term development plan (RPJP). The planning periods of RPJP in each level of government are 20 years. The spatial plans and RPJP of each level of government become the long term guidelines for the government leaders in each level (president, governors, and mayors or regents) to govern in their respective jurisdictions.<br />
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The hierarchy of spatial plans and long term development plans according to the Law 26/2007 and the Law 25/2004 is presented in Figure 2. Long term development plans (RPJPs) and spatial plans (RTRWs) in each level of government can complement each other. If the RPJP of province (RPJP Propinsi) or RPJP of district (RPJP Kabupaten and Kota) precedes their respective RTRW, the RPJP will provide long term development guidelines for the RTRW. If the RTRW of province (RTRW Propinsi) or RTRW of district (RTRW Kabupaten and Kota) precedes their respective RPJP, the RTRW will provide long term spatial development guidelines for the RPJP. In the meantime, the RTRW of provinces or districts according to the Law 24/1992 did not have any guidelines from the long term development plans but only from the higher level of spatial plans (RTRWs) .<br />
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The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 also stipulates the spatial planning for islands (RTR Islands). The central government is responsible for RTR Islands. As of January 2014, six draft RTR islands including RTR Java and Bali Islands, RTR Sumatera Island, RTR Sulawesi Island, RTR Kalimantan Island, RTR Maluku and RTR Papua have been completed and are under review by the Cabinet Secretariat for the approval by the President of Indonesia. The spatial planning for islands is a new provision in the Law 26/2007 and was not stipulated in the Spatial Planning Law 24/1992.<br />
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The new spatial law also takes into account the rapid urbanization in metropolises in Indonesia particularly in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area. The concepts of metropolitan area and megapolitan area are introduced in the new law. Such concepts are not included in the previous spatial planning law. A metropolitan area is defined as an urban area with a population of at least 1 million people. The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 defines a megapolitan area as two or more adjoining metropolitan areas that have a functional relationship.<br />
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One of the important provisions of the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 is the requirement of at least 30% of urban areas for open spaces. The open spaces can be public and private open spaces. More specifically, public open spaces account for at least 20% of urban areas. In addition, this law stipulates that forest areas must account for at least 30% of river stream areas. Such provision was not included in the previous spatial planning law.<br />
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The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 has one new principle of the spatial planning that was not included in the previous law . The principle of accountability is included in the new law presumably to correspond with the enthusiasm of Indonesian people for a more transparent and accountable system of government. The new law also stipulates the minimal standard of services in spatial planning. Such provision is to ensure a good quality of basic services of spatial planning for the Indonesian people. This is a response to the dissatisfaction of the Indonesian people over the poor quality of services from the government during the New Order Regime.<br />
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The new spatial law provides some new ways for enhancing the development control including zoning regulation (peraturan zonasi), planning permits, implementation of incentive and disincentive and imposing sanctions. The incentives could be tax cuts, compensation, cross subsidy, planning permit deregulation, and awards. The disincentives include higher taxes, the limitation of infrastructure, imposing compensation and penalty. The implementation of incentive and disincentive could be from the central government to local governments (province, kabupaten and kota), from local government to other local governments and from governments to community.<br />
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Another important provision of the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 is the sanction provision for spatial plan violations. The sanctions for spatial plan violations include administrative sanctions and criminal sanctions. This law stipulates nine types of administrative sanctions including written warning, temporary activity termination, temporary service termination, location closure, permit revocation, cancellation, building removal, land use reconversion, and administrative charges. The criminal sanctions in this law include imprisonments up to 15 years and penalties up to Rp. 5,000,000,000.00 (approximately US$ 500,000).<br />
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The Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 also validates the importance of public participation in spatial planning. The new law provides more detailed regulations than the previous spatial planning law including rights, obligations and the forms of public participation in spatial planning. Such provisions correspond with the more participatory system of government after the fall of the New Order Regime.<br />
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<b>The Changes of Spatial Planning Practices </b><br />
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After the end of the New Order regime, spatial plan violations are mostly associated with local governments that exploit their assets and natural resources for generating more local revenues. The more democratic government following the fall of Suharto’s New Order regime had no impact on spatial plan violations. The provision of sanctions for spatial plan violations has not been fully enforced. The provision of zoning regulations has not been supported by zoning inspectors to effectively enhance the development control in Indonesian cities. The transformation of spatial planning practice toward a more democratic and accountable one as a result of the enactment of the new spatial planning law is not an easy and instant process.<br />
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The implementation of the new spatial planning law in the JMA involves three factors including hindrances, opportunities and forces as shown in the table below.<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;">Table: Implementation factors of spatial planning practices in the JMA</span></b><br />
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The transformation of Indonesia into a more democratic government created opportunities for producing an effective spatial planning. However, a more decentralized government also created hindrances for an effective spatial planning implementation in the JMA. The ineffectiveness of spatial planning in Indonesian including the JMA is also associated with the centralized and arbitrary political culture from the New Order Regime and the clientelism governance culture that still pervade Indonesian communities.<br />
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<b>Reference:</b><br />
Rukmana, Deden. (2015). The change and transformation of Indonesian spatial planning after Suharto's New Order regime: The case of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area. <i>International Planning Journal. </i>DOI: 10.1080/13563475.2015.1008723<br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>_______________________</i><br />
<i>Note: I am pleased to share <b>free access</b> to the article from the link below for the first 50 eprints. </i><br />
<a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/xFT5bGZTCMSicu7zNkKt/full">http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/xFT5bGZTCMSicu7zNkKt/full</a><br />
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<script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br />
<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2015/03/the-change-and-transformation-of.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-91163878538694246782014-10-25T22:23:00.001-05:002017-06-17T13:12:23.579-05:00Urbanist Credentials of Indonesia's New President<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Joko Widodo was sworn in as Indonesia’s
seventh president on October 20<sup>th</sup> in Jakarta and succeeded Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono who stepped down after serving two five-year terms. Mr.
Widodo, popularly known by nickname Jokowi, is the first Indonesian president not
to have emerged from the military or political elite. He was born and raised in
a slum area in a river bank in Solo, Central Java Province. Jokowi is the son
of a carpenter and grew up to be a furniture businessman. He entered politics
in 2005 when he became mayor of his hometown Solo. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg464hlkY-WvXLZ2SCpI3SNOaU-lT0Bxz0NGvGhgiGL2D9jrMERKGmdwLgMjVhtiRGBvduREN0l8XjWruEXYXH1FiQOX8Lz1JGMup7f54ZWEJatfaMHyszEvlYVitGqDlqHR8nH91zkqrw/s1600/Jokowi+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg464hlkY-WvXLZ2SCpI3SNOaU-lT0Bxz0NGvGhgiGL2D9jrMERKGmdwLgMjVhtiRGBvduREN0l8XjWruEXYXH1FiQOX8Lz1JGMup7f54ZWEJatfaMHyszEvlYVitGqDlqHR8nH91zkqrw/s1600/Jokowi+1.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Source: The Facebook page of Joko Widodo, October 26, 2014</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Jokowi was twice elected mayor of Solo
and then governor of Jakarta in 2012. He was elected for second term in 2010
with more than 90% of the votes. He was popular among voters due to his
people-oriented policies and ability to empathize with the poor. Jokowi has successfully
transformed Solo to be a more livable city and rebranded Solo as the Spirit of
Java. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Jokowi addressed urban issues in Solo including
street vendors and acute traffic jams with a unique and innovative way. Most
street vendors in Indonesian cities engage in unregulated, disordered and
uncontrolled activities and could cause urban blight. They are a nuisance and
obstruct public spaces without paying any rent. Most Indonesian cities used
repressive measures to evict street vendors from urban parks or other public
spaces. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">In 2005, Mayor Jokowi successfully relocated
989 street vendors from the elite urban monument park of Banjarsari to Klitikan
traditional market. He was not the first mayor to try to restore the park that
was blighted by unorderly street vendors. He persuasively convinced the street
vendors about a plan to restore the monument park of Banjarsari, and offered
the street vendors a new place for their activities in Klitikan traditional
market. After seven months of negotiations, the street vendors agreed to
relocate their businesses to Klitikan traditional market. The city
administration waived the business permits and license fees and only asked the
street vendors to pay Rp. 6,000 (US$ 0.50) per day for the rent. The Solo city
administration had calculated the payments from the street vendors would pay
off the city spending approximately Rp. 9.8 billion (US$ 816,000) for building
Klitikan traditional market in eight-and- a- half years. In the meantime, the
monument park of Banjarsari has been restored as a beautiful and pedestrian
friendly monument park. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">After the successful relocation of the
street vendors from the monument park of Banjarsari, the Solo city
administration replicated the program to other locations frequented by street
vendors including Manahan stadium, Langen Bogan and Mayor Sunaryo Street. The
Solo city administration has also renovated several traditional markets
including Nusukan, Kembalang, Sidodadi, Gading, and Ngarsapura.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Mayor Jokowi also introduced bus rapid
transit services to address the traffic problems in Solo. His mantra of
addressing the city’s traffic chaos is “Move People, Not Cars”. He understands
that the correct way of addressing the city’s traffic congestion is not
building more roads, but developing mass transportation. He also used this
mantra during his campaign for the Jakarta’s governor in 2012. Jokowi developed
double decker buses and rail-buses services in Solo. Solo became the first Indonesian
city that implemented railbus services.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">His success in Solo quickly captured
national attention and prompted the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle to
name him as a candidate for Jakarta governor in 2012. Jokowi and his running
mate Basuki Purnama Tjahaja offered his vision of a “New Jakarta” aiming to address
many acute urban problems in Jakarta including traffic jams, floods, slum
areas, poverty, thugs, access to health care and education, and street vending.
They won the election with 2,472,130 votes or 53.82% of the total votes. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">In less than two years as the Governor
of Jakarta, Jokowi earned praise for his approaches of addressing chronic urban
problems in Jakarta particularly traffic jams, floods, slums and street
vending. Unlike the previous Jakarta governor, Jokowi openly opposed the
development of elevated toll roads because he believed such roads would not
disentangle Jakarta’s chronic traffic congestion. Instead, Jokowi expanded the
TransJakarta busway’s routes and restarted a monorail project that had been
delayed for decades. Jokowi also introduced the electronic road pricing (ERP)
and offered free double-decker buses in several Jakarta’s main thoroughfares.
Most importantly, Jokowi succeeded where three previous governors had failed,
in developing a mass rapid transit (MRT). The construction of the MRT project
began on October 10, 2013. The first MRT track will connect Lebak Bulus, South
Jakarta and the Hotel Indonesia traffic circle, Central Jakarta with six
underground stations, seven elevated stations and a capacity of 173,000
passengers per day. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSsu9VfQ-pcjMx6i_ZWi2nQKL1GQvnZGjLOfbPHSXnolOmnJ-0nJq6rOS5Lf9D9r__w4G9iVDPilzTsDDru_B67c3g3rUxzHf-ur7-cJSKaUuQ79cCj4CRuURY8FsP-Ti1ihut3O6Eq_s/s1600/Traffic+Mampang+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSsu9VfQ-pcjMx6i_ZWi2nQKL1GQvnZGjLOfbPHSXnolOmnJ-0nJq6rOS5Lf9D9r__w4G9iVDPilzTsDDru_B67c3g3rUxzHf-ur7-cJSKaUuQ79cCj4CRuURY8FsP-Ti1ihut3O6Eq_s/s1600/Traffic+Mampang+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Busway of TransJakarta in Mampang, South Jakarta. Source: Author's collection</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The success of the street vendor
relocation in Solo was replicated by Jokowi in Tanah Abang, Jakarta. Hundreds
of street vendors in Tanah Abang caused the horrendous traffic jams at the
biggest textile market in Southeast Asia. He offered the vendors to use the
Blog G building for their economic activities. After months of negotiation with
the street vendors, 968 street vendors were relocated to the Blog G building. Jokowi
won praise as the street vendor relocation cleared the traffic jams in the
Tanah Abang area. Street vendors in Sunda Kelapa, Pasar Minggu and Kota Tua
were also relocated by the city administration to designated buildings nearby.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Jakarta lies in a lowland area with 13
rivers and floods have become a threat and bring increasing woes for Jakarta
residents every year. Jokowi understood the roots of the problem and attacked
them in many ways. In June 2013, Governor Jokowi signed an agreement with the
World Bank for the dredging project. The project used US$150 million to dredge
11 rivers and two dams in Jakarta including the Cakung River, the Sunter River,
Angke River and the Ciliwung River. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Jokowi also successfully relocated
squatters occupying a number of Jakarta’s riverbanks and reservoirs to a number
of low-cost apartments nearby. The relocations made way for the development of
inspection roads as an access point for dredging equipment. Jokowi was aware
that the conversion of water catchment areas, green areas and wetland had been
also the Jakarta’s floods. During his time as governor, Jokowi restored several
lakes and reservoirs including Ria-Rio reservoir, Pluit dam, Cengkareng Lake,
and Sunter Lake. Jokowi also built a new public park, a jogging tract,
amphitheater and seating for relaxing in the west side of the Pluit dam. In
less than two years, Jokowi also restored and developed several new city parks
including Semanggi Park, BMW Park, Ramah Anak Salam Park, Tebet Park, Penjaringan
Park, Tugu Tani Park, Casablanca Park, and Tanah Abang Park.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">All tributaries and basin areas of the
13 rivers in Jakarta are located in the peripheries of Jakarta and they are
strongly associated with the floods in Jakarta. Jokowi coordinated with nine
neighboring cities and regencies and offered Rp. 45 billion (US$ 3.75 million)
to finance flood mitigation programs in 2014. In February 2014, Governor Jokowi
attended a tree-planting ceremony with Bogor Regent Rachmat Yasin at the
upstream area of the Ciliwung River in Bogor Regency. The ceremony marked the
beginning of the plantation of 40,000 trees across Bogor Regency. The Jakarta
administration also acquired 107 hectares of land in Bogor regency to build two
new reservoirs while it is the responsibility of the central government to
build the reservoir. The reservoirs will act as a water catchment area and
mitigate the impact of floods in Jakarta.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">In Jakarta, most
poor residents live in spontaneous informal settlements referred to as kampung.
Kampungs are scattered throughout the city and have substandard infrastructure,
small plots of land for each dwelling and low quality of building structure and
materials. Jokowi introduced an innovative program called Kampung Deret that builds
low-rise apartment blocks for very low-income residents in Jakarta’s kampungs.
This new program was launched in October 2013. The program aims to create a
house and an environment that adhered to ideal health standards which will
improve the lives of its residents. The city government provided a budget of 54
million rupiahs (US$4,500) for each housing unit which was disbursed to the
residents in three phases, with a consultant to mediate the process. Residents
are responsible in overseeing the construction and are allowed to renovate
their own spaces with the given budget. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlthDo0bOXBSBaPkpCWgP1dB0E2j7r7ud8UuPsi_GllyfXqnjijDllMVv_lh4s9RSshAG0c86jD6708W5I8wPSiYF20WiIj9om8avv4vmgIFVyiOmIiZWeMwxJvFCm_RDOAjzsVNHH8Pw/s1600/img_8579_27326969203_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlthDo0bOXBSBaPkpCWgP1dB0E2j7r7ud8UuPsi_GllyfXqnjijDllMVv_lh4s9RSshAG0c86jD6708W5I8wPSiYF20WiIj9om8avv4vmgIFVyiOmIiZWeMwxJvFCm_RDOAjzsVNHH8Pw/s640/img_8579_27326969203_o.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kampung Deret in Petogogan, South Jakarta</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The
first Kampung Deret project was inaugurated by Governor Joko Widodo on April 3,
2014. This project replaced the semi-permanent and substandard houses on the
riverbanks in Petogogan, South Jakarta. The project built 124 units of
two-story decent apartment blocks for the residents who used to live the area
as squatters. The project also improved the drainage system and developed a
park in the neighborhood. The project was also aimed to mitigate the floods in
Petogogan subdistrict since this area was frequently flooded during the rainy
season. In 2014, the city administration has been completing other Kampung
Deret projects in 74 locations in Jakarta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">In less than a
decade, Jokowi completed an improbable ascent from the mayor of his home city with
a population of a half million to the governor of bustling Indonesia’s capital
and finally the president of the world’s fourth-most populous country. Not only
did his strong urbanist credentials transform Solo and Jakarta to be more
livable places but also contribute to his ascent to the top job in Indonesia.
The people of Indonesia will witness if his urbanist credentials could also
address numerous challenges of Indonesia including reviving the country’s
sluggish rate of economic growth for the next five year of his term. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>References:</b></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Rukmana, Deden. (2014). Peripheral Pressure: Jakarta. <i>Archaeology of the Periphery of Megacities. </i>Roger Connah (Ed.). Moscow: Strelka Press. pp. 158-167</li>
<li>Rukmana, Deden. (2011). Street Vendor and Planning in Indonesian Cities. <i>Planning Theory and Practice </i>12(1): 138-144</li>
<li>The Jakarta Globe. November 1, 2013</li>
<li>The Jakarta Globe. April 1, 2014</li>
<li>The Jakarta Post, September 2, 2013</li>
<li>The Jakarta Post. January 6, 2014 </li>
<li>The Jakarta Post, February 5, 2014</li>
</ol>
<br />
<br /></div>
<script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br />
<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2014/10/urbanist-credentials-of-indonesias-new.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-88880819766274972272014-03-29T22:35:00.001-05:002017-05-03T15:35:14.763-05:00Space Provision for Street Vendors<br />
On November 5, 2012, <a href="http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/jakarta/jakarta-aims-to-give-hawkers-permanent-areas-to-trade/554356">The Jakarta Globe</a> reported that the Jakarta administration plan to provide permanent areas for street vendors. The Jakarta Deputy Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama had discussed this idea with the chairman of the Jakarta chapter of the Indonesian Street Vendors Association (APKLI). The Jakarta APKLI and the Jakarta administration plan to provide permanent areas in malls, traditional markets, schools and offices for street vendors to operate their businesses.<br />
<br />
The Jakarta APKLI estimated about 300,000 street vendors operating their businesses in Jakarta. The plan is to resettle the street vendors in permanent areas gradually. The street vendors will not be charged with rental fees in the first year or two and begin pay installment after that period.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
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<div align="center" class="flickr-frame">
<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/yuna_lee/5953141/" title="photo sharing"><img alt="" class="flickr-photo" src="https://farm1.static.flickr.com/4/5953141_d991bbff2c.jpg"></a><span class="flickr-caption"><br /><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/yuna_lee/5953141/">kakilima</a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/people/yuna_lee/">yuna lee</a>.</span></div>
<div class="flickr-yourcomment">
</div>
<br />
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">The prominent cases of persuasive street vendor relocations are in the city of Solo. In 2005, the newly elected mayor, Joko Widodo, relocated 989 street vendors from the elite urban monument park of Banjarsari to Klitikan traditional market (Tempo 2008). Mayor Jokowi, as the mayor is popularly known, persuasively convinced the street vendors about a plan to restore the monument park of Banjarsari, and offered the street vendors a new place for their activities in Klitikan traditional market. After seven months of negotiations, the street vendors agreed to relocate their businesses to Klitikan traditional market. The city administration waived the business permits and license fees and only asked the street vendors to pay Rp. 6,000 (US$ 0.60) per day for the rent. The Solo city administration had calculated the payments from the street vendors would pay off the city spending approximately Rp. 9.8 billion (US$ 980,000) for building Klitikan traditional market in eight-and- a- half years. In the meantime, the monument park of Banjarsari has been restored as a beautiful and pedestrian friendly monument park (The Jakarta Post 2008). </span><br />
<br />
After the successful relocation of the street vendors from the monument park of Banjarsari, the Solo city administration replicated the program to other locations frequented by street vendors including Manahan stadium, Langen Bogan and Mayor Sunaryo Street. The Solo city administration has also renovated several traditional markets including Nusukan, Kembalang, Sidodadi, Gading, and Ngarsapura (Kompas 2009). The street vendor relocations to the traditional market can also be seen as the transformation of the street vendors from the informal sector to the formal sector. The success of Mayor Jokowi’s approach of street vendor relocations has been also replicated in other Indonesian cities. <br />
<br />
At the metropolitan scale, new spatial plans are required to recognize and accommodate the informal sector. The draft 2030 Jakarta spatial plan is a good example of this, recognizing the informal sector in the metropolitan area of Jakarta as a distinctive land use designation (DKI Jakarta 2010) for the first time. This means the plan specifically accommodates informal sector activities by designating space for small-scale enterprises in offices, trade, services and industrial areas. These spaces are integrated with those for the formal sectors. Each city district (Central Jakarta, West Jakarta, East Jakarta, North Jakarta and South Jakarta) has several areas designated for informal sector activities.<br />
<br />
While neither the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 nor the guideline for the urban spatial plan making process (PermenPU 17/PRT/M/2009) provide a definition of the informal sector, the draft 2030 Jakarta spatial plan does by specifying types of activities including street vendors, small food home industry and other small scale industries that are located in residential areas. <br />
<br />
Spatial planning in Indonesia has a long history of poor implementation and of simply being ineffective. This does not appear to have changed. During the Suharto regime regulations were interpreted liberally and restrictions were deemed flexible by central government to benefit Suharto’s extended network including the interests of large developers (Dharmapatni and Firman 1994). No sanctions were ever imposed against violations of the former Spatial Planning law (24/1992), rendering this ineffective (Firman 1997). Since the Reformasi, spatial planning laws are often violated or overlooked by local authorities to increase development, and therefore the income and tax base, of their locality. Many local authorities are seen to behave like “little kings” (Firman 2008). The enforcement of spatial planning law, then, is still weak at ensuring the availability of urban space for street vendors.<br />
<br />
Street vendors are a critical part of the Indonesia economy. They are not groups who have failed to enter the economic system in urban areas, but are one of the modes of urban transformation inseparable from urban economies and urban development.<br />
<br />
Within planning, then, the informal sector should be seen as a mode of urbanization that connects various economic activities and space in urban areas. It requires an understanding that the informal sector comprises an important part of the economic structure. The provision of the informal sector in the draft 2030 Jakarta spatial plan is expected to allocate designated urban spaces to street vendors and integrate them with the formal sectors. This is potentially part of a new recognition of the importance of informality in Indonesian cities. Yet to make it work, the new spatial planning laws and instruments must be enforced to ensure designated urban spaces for street vendors are respected. <br />
<br />
Without strong law enforcement, the Spatial Planning Law 26/2007 will be unable to transform the spatial planning practice in Indonesia into a more democratic and accountable one and ensure the availability of urban space for street vendors.<br />
<br />
<b>References</b><br />
<br />
Dharmapatni, I. A. I. and Firman, T. (1994). The challenges to sustainable development in Jakarta Metropolitan Region. Habitat International 18(3): 79-94 <br />
<br />
DKI Jakarta. (2010). Draft 2030 Jakarta spatial plan. Available at <a href="http://www.rtrwjakarta2030.com/wp-content/plugins/downloads-manager/upload/Raperda.pdf">http://www.rtrwjakarta2030.com/wp-content/plugins/downloads-manager/upload/Raperda.pdf</a><br />
<br />
Firman, T. (1997). Land conversion and urban development in the Northern Region of West Java, Indonesia. Urban Studies 34(7): 1027-1046 <br />
<br />
Firman, T. (2008). In search of a governance institution model for Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA) under Indonesia’s new decentralization policy: Old problem, new challenges. Public Administration and Development 28: 1-11</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
Rukmana, Deden. (2011). Street Vendor and Planning in Indonesian Cities. Planning Theory and Practice 12(1): 138-144<br />
Tempo (2008). Joko Widodo, walikota Surakarta wali kaki lima (Joko Widodo, Mayor of Surakarta mayor of street vendors) 22 December 2008. <br />
<br />
The Jakarta Post (2008). Joko “Jokowi” Widodo: Changing the face of Surakarta. (2008). 29 October 2008.<br />
<br />
The Jakarta Post (2010) Vendors pay up to Rp. 2m in illegal fees. 30 August 2010. <br />
<div style="text-indent: -24px;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<br />
<script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br />
<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2014/03/space-provision-for-street-vendors.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-3742340087075773272014-03-29T21:14:00.000-05:002017-05-18T21:49:46.708-05:00The Megacity of Jakarta: Problems, Challenges and Planning Efforts<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: left;">
<i>In September 2013, I received an invitation from the Moscow Urban Forum to submit an article on Jakarta. The <a href="http://mosurbanforum.com/about/" target="_blank">Moscow Urban Forum</a> was an international event for experts, investors, and potential partners interested in the development of Moscow and held on December 5-7, 2013. One of the outcomes of the Moscow Urban Forum is the multidisciplinary research of the periphery of megacities. More than 10 megacities were parts of the research including Jakarta. The Moscow Urban Forum has released the report of the research titled "Archaeology of the Periphery" as can be found at <a href="http://mosurbanforum.com/study/arch/pdf/" target="_blank">this link. </a> The r<span style="font-family: inherit;">eport includes my article of Jakarta </span></i><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">titled "Peripheral Pressures" </span></i><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">on pp. 162-171. This post is t</span>he extension of that article and will be presented in the Spring 2014 Seminar Series in the Center for Southeast Asian Research (CSEAR) at the University of British Colombia in Vancouver, Canada on May 1, 2014.</i></blockquote>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction</span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Jakarta is the capital of
Indonesia and the largest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia with tremendous
population growth and a wide range of urban problems. The overall population of
the megacity of Jakarta grew in the 20th Century, from about 150,000 in 1900 to
about 28 million in 2010. The megacity of Jakarta is also called <i>Jabodetabek, taken</i> from the initial
letters of the administrative units of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and
Bekasi. The center of Jabodetabek is
Jakarta, also called the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (<i>Daerah Khusus Ibukota</i> Jakarta) and covers
a total area of 664 square kilometers. The inner peripheries of the megacity of
Jakarta include four municipalities (City of Tangerang, City of South
Tangerang, City of Depok, City of Bekasi), whereas the outer peripheries of
Jabodetabek include the City of Bogor, Tangerang Regency and Bekasi Regency. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">The megacity covers a total area of 5,897 square kilometers
(Hudalah and Firman 2007).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjAxQKJD-7T6d1yOts3FWctlrtgaR3uRN8sbGpQ3JBJHLKg1BAkwErgB3Ebs2nnPKa7rpFCiaZN4WJgQ3z28LDh7mgd5u0J4WZe7k2zQ_xLn2P_Z5gV8gsFZ-MvV2-qcuVVMajp91-8No/s1600/Skyline+Jakarta+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjAxQKJD-7T6d1yOts3FWctlrtgaR3uRN8sbGpQ3JBJHLKg1BAkwErgB3Ebs2nnPKa7rpFCiaZN4WJgQ3z28LDh7mgd5u0J4WZe7k2zQ_xLn2P_Z5gV8gsFZ-MvV2-qcuVVMajp91-8No/s1600/Skyline+Jakarta+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Skyline of Jakarta, January 2014</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Jakarta, or the Special Capital
Region of Jakarta, has </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">‘provincial
government level’ status. The peripheries of Jabodetabek are within the
jurisdiction of two provinces. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">The City
of Bogor, City of Depok, City of Bekasi and Bekasi Regency are within the
jurisdiction of West Java Province, whereas the City of Tangerang, City of South
Tangerang and Tangerang Regency are within the jurisdiction of Banten Province.
The four municipalities within the inner peripheries of Jabodetabek are new
municipalities founded in the 1990s and 2000s. The City of Tangerang, City of
Bekasi, City of Depok and City of South Tangerang were founded in 1993, 1996,
1999 and 2008 respectively. The City of Tangerang and City of South Tangerang
seceded from Tangerang Regency. Meanwhile, the City of Depok was part of Bogor
Regency and the City of Bekasi seceded from Bekasi Regency. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Population Growth of
the Megacity of Jakarta</span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Jakarta has
been the capital of Indonesia since the Dutch colonial era. The population of
Jakarta in 1900 was about 115,000. In the first nationwide census of the Dutch
colonial administration (1930), Jakarta’s population increased to 409,475. In the
next ten years, the population increased to 544,823 with an annual growth rate
of 3.30%. After Independence, Jakarta increased by nearly three times to 1.43
million by 1950. It increased to 2.91 million in 1960 and 4.47 million in 1970.
The annual growth rates of Jakarta’s population are 10.35% and 5.36% (1950-1960
and 1960-1970 respectively).</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Table 1 shows
the population of the Megacity of Jakarta including Jakarta, the inner and
outer peripheries of Jakarta, from 1980 to 2010. The Megacity of Jakarta
increased from 11.91 million in 1980, 17.14 million in 1990, and 20.63 million
in 2000 to 28.01 million in 2010. The megacity in 2010 was 11.79 percent of Indonesia’s
total population but this population resides in less than 0.3 percent of
Indonesia’s total area. The proportions of Jabodetabek’s population to the
total population of Indonesia have steadily increased from 8.07%, 9.56%, to 10.0%
(in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively).</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"> </span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Table 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Population of the Megacity of
Jakarta in 1980-2010<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">(in millions)</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: -13.05pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 431px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Area<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1980<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1990<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Core </span></i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">6.50<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.26<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.39<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">9.60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Inner peripheries<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">4.93<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">7.22<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.33<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of South Tangerang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.80<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.29<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Depok<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Bekasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">n.a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.66<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.38<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Outer peripheries <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">5.41<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">8.88<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">7.31<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">11.20<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> City of Bogor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.27<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.75<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">0.95<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Tangerang Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.53<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.77<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.84<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Bekasi Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">1.62<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> Bogor Regency<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.49<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">3.74<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">2.92<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">4.78<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.95pt;" valign="top" width="175"><div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Megacity of Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.05pt;" valign="top" width="75"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">11.91<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">17.14<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 46.0pt;" valign="top" width="61"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">20.63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="layout-grid-mode: both; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">28.02<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeader">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Sources:
Central Bureau of Statistics, Firman (1997) and Cox (2011)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Transformation of Jakarta</span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">The
modern city of Jakarta was initiated by President Soekarno’s strong vision to
build Jakarta into the greatest city possible (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). He
gave Jakarta, Monas – his most symbolic new structure the 132 m high national
monument, spacious new government buildings, department stores, shopping
plazas, hotels, the sport facilities of Senayan that were used for the 1962
Asian Games, the biggest and most glorious mosque of Istiqlal, new parliament
buildings and the waterfront recreation area at Ancol. Such constructions
continued under the New Order regime that began in 1967. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Under this
regime, Indonesia enjoyed steady economic growth, along with a reduction in the
percentage of the population living under the poverty line (Firman 1999). From
40% in 1976, the levels declined to the official level of 11.3% in 1996.</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">In 1996 6.9 million people in urban areas and
15.7 million people in rural areas lived under the poverty line.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Jakarta grew
rapidly during this period of the New Order regime. The investment in the
property sector, including offices, commercial buildings, new town development,
and highrise apartments and hotels grew substantially. Firman (1998; 1999)
argued that Jakarta, by the mid-1990s, was heading towards global city status.
Jakarta was the largest concentration of foreign and domestic investment in
Indonesia and received US$ 32.5 billion and Rp. 68,500 billion from foreign and
domestic investment respectively during the period of January 1967-March 1998
(Firman 1999).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">In the
early administration of the New Order regime, some projects were completed,
including the Ismail Marzuki Arts Center, industrial zones at Tanjung Priok and
Pulo Gadung, that aimed to attract foreign investment, plus the unique theme
park of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. During the thirty-two years of the New
Order regime, Jakarta changed considerably. A generally rapid economic growth
during this period allowed Jakarta to expand its modern constructions and
develop into a modern city. Firman (1998; 2000) noted that the physical development
of Jakarta resulted from its functioning as a “global city” in Asia. The
“global cities” in Asia include Tokyo, Seoul, Taipei, Hongkong, Manila,
Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Singapura and Jakarta. Hundreds of new office towers,
hotels and high-rise condominiums were built in many parts of the city.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir7YUjQe4IXfrFRU7tsAcSZcr0WOSKyI-KqCdg9Pn5HgGlVnm149rTE1SIj8oZG6nUuZK04HUlpIgqMF5ud4booo3fvYoheiNSCnE8KBrJ4vQenLURPPIOJqQ3bSCFGZFo1ykIVgS7TbA/s1600/Jakarta+night+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir7YUjQe4IXfrFRU7tsAcSZcr0WOSKyI-KqCdg9Pn5HgGlVnm149rTE1SIj8oZG6nUuZK04HUlpIgqMF5ud4booo3fvYoheiNSCnE8KBrJ4vQenLURPPIOJqQ3bSCFGZFo1ykIVgS7TbA/s1600/Jakarta+night+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">M.H. Thamrin Blvd, Jakarta. January 2014</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Murakami
and her colleagues (2005) compared the urbanization stage and patterns of land
use in Jakarta, Bangkok dan Manila. Using the Clark linear exponential model
and the Newling quadratic exponential model, they compared the spatial distribution
of population densities in those cities. They also analyzed land-use patterns
by examining the mixture of urban and agricultural land use. They found that
Jakarta had entered the </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">suburbanization </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">stage,
while Manila was at early stage of suburbanization and Bangkok was at
intermediate stage of suburbanization. The Golden Triangle – a new style
commercial zone - was built in Thamrin-Sudirman corridor to push the urban
skyline upward in response to high land costs in key areas and the convenience
of the automobile (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). This zone aimed to accommodate
internationally invested highrise mega-blocks; a result of the regional competition
among “global cities” (Firman, 1998; Goldblum and Wong, 2000).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Jakarta
is linked with other “global cities” in a functional system built around
telecommunications, transportation, services and finance. A parade of tall buildings,
one after the other fill the major streets on both sides. They house the
offices of Indonesian and multi-national corporations. Firman (1999) reported
that total area of commercial space in Jakarta in 1978 was only 0.1 million
square meters and in 1997 it reached 2.7 million square meters with nearly 90% occupancy
rates. In every part of the city, modern shopping malls along with family
enterprises were also built.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">The
economy crisis which hit Indonesia in 1998 resulted in major disruptions of the
urban development in Jakarta. Such monstrous crisis shifted Jakarta from
“global city” to “city of crisis”. The crisis – commonly known in Indonesia as </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">krismon -</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> largely squeezed the economy of Jakarta.
Domestic and foreign investment dramatically fell off. Many manufacturing and
services corporations in the megacity of Jakarta closed and laid off their employees,
resulting in the rapid increase of uncontrolled unemployment. In order to
survive the </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">krismon,
</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">a large number of
workers shifted to become food traders or then engaged in other informal sector
jobs. Street vendors –commonly known in Indonesia as </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">pedagang kaki lim a- </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">increased rapidly from about 95,000 in
1997 to 270,000 in 1999 (Firman, 1999). The increasing informal labor force is
a distinctive characteristic of cities in developing countries since the formal
sector fails to accommodate a large labor force. This shrinkage of economic
activities resulted in the decrease of office space demand which dropped from
300,000 square meters in 1997 to 85,000 square meters in 1999. Similarly, the
demand for high-class apartments dropped from 49,000 in December 1997, to
16,000 in February 1998. The housing market in the megacity nearly collapsed
due to increasing costs of building materials and higher housing loan interest
rates. Most construction projects in the periphery of Jakarta slowed down or
even completely stopped (Firman, 2000).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">In order
to mitigate the impact of the </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">krismon,
</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">in July 1998</span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">the government along with the assistance
of IMF launched a variety of social safety net programs. These programs included
food security, employment creation, student scholarships and block grants to
schools, targeted health care subsidies, and community block grant (Sumarto,
et. al., 2004). Political and economic reforms were also implemented during the
recovery process. Civil unrest and political uncertainty heightened during the </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">krismon </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">gradually lowered during the recovery
process. As of early 2005, Indonesia’s economic performance was more positive. The
rate of economic growth of Jakarta was 5.26% per year over the period of
2001-2004 (Firman 2008).</span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Suburbanization
in the Megacity of Jakarta</span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">To understand the </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">suburbanization</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
in the megacity of Jakarta, it is essential to recognize the socio-economic
dualism pervading Indonesian urban society. The manifestations of this dualism
are the presence of the modern city and the kampung city in urban areas. The </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">kampung,</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> ‘village’ in Indonesian, is
associated with informality, poverty, and the retention of rural traditions within
an urban setting. Firman (1999) argues the existence of </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">kampungs </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">and modern cities reflect spatial segregation and
socio-economic disparities.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDaWWIBla5mAVNcDtTwzMVXiFAl-Y637Djus4PcksvlIjtkxTt7AHLA-0ocAzeFBDfpSNli1ldRVU1NOgk-Z6h1YJnd_tqD2ViA4oWM4gQHKD4wKYuHP9a6Rz0AJ0tF_rjTSUPtwXbQfw/s1600/Kampung+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDaWWIBla5mAVNcDtTwzMVXiFAl-Y637Djus4PcksvlIjtkxTt7AHLA-0ocAzeFBDfpSNli1ldRVU1NOgk-Z6h1YJnd_tqD2ViA4oWM4gQHKD4wKYuHP9a6Rz0AJ0tF_rjTSUPtwXbQfw/s1600/Kampung+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kampung and the modern city of Jakarta, January 2014</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">The growing numbers of migrants
to Jakarta and poor Jakarta natives have produced new squatter kampungs on the
periphery of Jakarta (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). Many constructions in the
central city also caused some residents of kampungs to be evicted and relocated
to the periphery (Silver, 2008). The periphery also attracted migrants because
of its improved infrastructures and facilities in (Goldblum and Wong, 2000). Since
1950, Jakarta has attracted people from all parts of Java and other Indonesian
islands. The flood of migrants came to Jakarta for economic reasons as Jakarta
offered the hope of employment. The 1961 census showed only 51% of the city’s
population was actually born in Jakarta (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). And many
times, Jakarta officials tried to control migration by declaring the city
closed; new migrants were not allowed entry. However, these attempts proved
useless; a large number of migrants ignored the law.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Leaf (1994) has identified the rapid
growth of suburban enclave housing in Jakarta during early 1990s. The
residential enclave for narrowly targeted moderate and high-income families
characterized Jakarta’s suburban area (Firman, 1998; Leaf, 1994). Located on
the periphery of the city, these settlements were built in
automobile-accessible areas with various high-quality amenities such as modern
golf courses. High-income families in the central city also moved from the city
in search of better living quality (Goldblum and Wong, 2000). The high cost of
houses and the need for automobiles restricted low-income families from the
suburban housing market. One in five families in Jakarta’s suburbs owned an
automobile (Leaf, 1994). Leaf (1994) has argued that suburbanization in Jakarta
was a direct outcome of at least two policies: the subsidized housing finance
program and the municipal permit system for land development. These policies
have most benefited developers strongly linked with the New Order Regime. Half
of the land development permits were given to 16 development firms. The other half
was distributed amongst the other 167 development firms (Leaf, 1994).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">In addition to residential zones,
the periphery of Jakarta is also made up of specialized zones of commercial and
industrial enterprises. These areas complement the other districts of Jakarta:
the central business districts on Thamrin-Sudirman corridor, the government
offices around Medan Merdeka, the international seaport of Tanjung Priok, and
the growing network of freeways. Since the end of the 1980s, no new industrial
parks have been developed in Jakarta (Hudalah et al 2013). Initiated by a
collaborative project of Bumi Serpong Damai in the early 1980s, the periphery
of Jakarta was also the location of several new towns. The first new town of
Bumi Serpong Damai was planned for an eventual population of 600,000 in a total
area of 6,000 hectares; a project developed by several private developers and
led by the largest private developer – the Ciputra Group. Other new towns in
the peripheries of Jakarta include Bukit Jonggol Asri, Pembangunan Jaya, Lippo
City, Cikarang Baru, Tigaraksa, Kota Legenda, Kota Cileungsi, Royal Sentul,
Bintaro Jaya, Lido Lakes Resort, Gading Serpong, Modernland, Kota Citra Raya
and Alam Sutera dan Kedaton (Firman 1998; Silver 2008).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">In a number of these new towns,
the State Housing Provider Agency (Perumnas) joined with private developers to
assure some housing was targeted for low and moderate-income families
(Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). Most of the new towns offered relatively few
employment opportunities. Their initial concept was to create self-contained
communities but this was barely implemented. Instead, the new towns became
“bedroom suburbs for city-bound commuters” (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). The new
towns were still heavily dependent on the central city (Firman, 1999; Silver
2008) and the development of large-scale housing projects intensified the daily
interaction between the fringe areas and the central city of Jakarta. This
worsened the traffic problems in metropolitan Jakarta. The development of
industrial zones in the peripheries of Jakarta also indicated a spatial
restructuring that shifted manufacturing from the central city to the
periphery. Firman (1998) reported that the central city attracted disproportionate
investment in service industries, trade and hotel, and restaurant construction.
The peripheries attracted most of the industrial construction; these include
textiles, apparel, footwear, plastics, chemicals, electronics, metal products
and foods (Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001). </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">In
the peripheries of the megacity of Jakarta, agricultural areas and forests were
massively converted into industrial estates, large-scale subdivisions and new
towns (Firman 1999; Silver 2007). Within 10 years, 20 new towns emerged in the megacity
of Jakarta and converted 16.6 thousand hectares of rural land (Winarso and
Firman 2002, p. 488).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">The massive
development on the outskirts of the megacity of Jakarta resulted from a series
of deregulation and de-bureaucratization measures enacted by the Suharto
government in the 1980s (Winarso and Firman 2002, p. 488). The subsidized
housing finance program and municipal permit system for land development also contributed
to policies that have most benefited some developers strongly linked to the New
Order regime (Leaf, 1994). Winarso and Firman (2002) revealed almost all large
developers were well connected to the President Suharto’s family and inner
circle including his daughters, sons, brother, in-laws and close friends. The
connection to the Suharto family and inner circle became signifcant; closeness
to the first family helped the large developers expand their business. Interlinking
also occurred among the large developers through cross-shareholding, shared
directorships and joint ventures; procees which turned potential competitors
into collaborators and created oligopolistic types of land and housing markets.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Continuing
with the </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">suburbanization; </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">this
was</span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"> </i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">also caused by the development of
three highways stretching from Jakarta to the peripheries - the Jagorawi toll
road, the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road, and the Jakarta-Merak toll road
(Henderson and Kuncoro 1996). The development of private industrial parks in
the peripheries naturally followed the development of these highways (Hudalah
et al 2013). </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Private industrial parks in
the peripheries range from 50 to 1,800 hectares and on average the size is
about 500 hectares (Hudalah et al 2013); major industrial centers are located
in Cikupa-Balaraja of Tangerang Regency and Cikarang of Bekasi Regency. The
industrial center of Cikarang with a total industrial land area of nearly 6,000
hectares is the largest planned industrial center in Southeast Asia (Hudalah
and Firman 2012).</span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Problems and
Challenges in Jakarta and Its Peripheries</span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Jakarta megacity has experienced
a tremendous population growth and faced a wide range of urban problems in the
last few decades. Two major problems are traffic congestions and floods. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Despite several programs to alleviate traffic
congestion and flooding, the severity of traffic and flooding in Jakarta and
its peripheries has not decreased.</span><br />
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></i>
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Floods in Jakarta</span></span></i><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Floods have
become a threat and bring increasing woes for Jakarta residents every year.</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> <span style="background: white;">In 2007, the worst floods in memory inundated about 70%
of Jakarta, killed at least 57 people and sent about 450,000 fleeing their
houses. In 2008, floods inundated most parts of Jakarta including the Sedyatmo
toll road and nearly 1,000 flights in the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport
were delayed or diverted with 259 were cancelled. In 2012, floods inundated
hundreds of homes along major Jakarta waterways including the Ciliwung,
Pesanggrahan, Angke and Krukut rivers and displaced 2,430 people (The Jakarta
Globe, April 5, 2012).<span class="apple-converted-space"> In </span>January
2013, many parts of Jakarta were inundated following heavy rain and
killed at least 20 people and sent at least 33,502 fleeing their houses as
reported by the National Disaster Mitigation Agency (BNPB) (The Jakarta Globe,
January 22, 2013). In the aftermath of these annual floods, the government
usually focuses on releasing floodwater as quickly as possible into the sea,
particularly around the development of the East Flood Canal and dredging of
rivers. Similarly, Governor Joko Widodo laid out his plan to improve the East
Flood Canal, the drainage in Cengkareng and Pesanggrahan and develop a
reservoir for reducing the flow of the Ciliwung River (The Jakarta Globe,
November 19, 2012).</span> <span style="background: white;">The East Flood Canal was launched in the aftermath of
major floods in 2002 and reached the sea on December 31, 2009 after very slowly
progress due to complicated land acquisitions. This canal was considered the
most feasible means to prevent future flooding in Jakarta, but clearly cannot
prevent flooding entirely. The canal, coupled with the dredging of rivers, is
only able to mitigate impacts of flooding.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">However annual flooding is not
the only threat to Jakarta’s sustainability; land subsidence has become a major
threat and the exploitation of groundwater is one of the contributing factors
that continued for many years. Land subsidence in Jakarta was first identified
by researchers when the Sarinah bridge at Jalan M.H. Thamrin was found cracked
in 1978 (Djaja, et. al., 2004). Since then, the measurement of land subsidence
in Jakarta has been conducted and the rate of land subsidence has been
increasing over years, particularly in the northern part of the city. In
addition, the Jakarta Mining Agency reported variances over a 12-year period,
from 1993 to 2005; the largest rate of land subsidence occurred in Central
Jakarta. The above sea-level height of Central Jakarta was 3.42 meters in 1993.
This dropped by 102 cm in 2005. The height of North Jakarta was only 1.46
meters above sea level in 2005, dropping from 2.03m in 1993. During the same
period, West Jakarta, East Jakarta and South Jakarta have sunk by 2.11, 11.45
and 28.46 centimeters respectively (Jakarta Post, 28 April 2007).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">The Jakarta Mining Agency data
shows: 80% of the city’s land subsidence is caused by building particularly
high-risk towers; 17% by groundwater exploitation and 3% by natural causes
(Jakarta Post, 23 August 2007). Due to limited piped water supply, the majority
of Jakarta’s population has to rely on groundwater for their water needs. The
Agency estimated 66,000 gallons of water were extracted from the Jakarta's land
every year. Clearly such intensive groundwater withdrawal accelerates land
subsidence. A more recent study from Bandung Institute of Technology found that
Jakarta is sinking at a rate of 10 cm per year (The Jakarta Globe, April 24,
2010). The study identified coastal areas in North Jakarta including Muara
Kapuk and Ancol experiencing the highest rate of subsidence due to extensive
development on the relatively young and porous soil beneath. It also indicated
about 5,100 hectares of land in North Jakarta would be submerged in 2020 and
another 6,000 hectares in 2050, if no action was taken to mitigate land
subsidence (The Jakarta Post, February 7, 2011).</span><br />
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></i>
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Floods in the Peripheries of Jakarta</span></span></i><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Floods are still
a constant annual threat for residents of Jakarta’s peripheries. The residents
of Cireundeu, Ciputat and Rempoa of the City of South Tangerang experienced
floods every year; areas inundated by flooding from the Pesanggrahan River (The
Jakarta Post, October 8, 2013). The residents of Jatirasa, Pondok Gede, Kemang
Ivy, Deltamas, and Pekayon of the City of Bekasi also suffered from floods due
to the collapse of the Bekasi River’s embankment (The Jakarta Post, February 6,
2013). Residents of Beji and Kemirimuka of the City of Depok experienced annual
floods due to the Kawin River (The Jakarta Post, January 15, 2013) after heavy
rainfall,</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">also then flooding homes in
the Bukit Sawangan Indah and Villa Pamulang of the City of Depok (The Jakarta
Post, February 14, 2013). The Tangerang Regency’s Public Works Agency </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">recorded that 32 areas in Tangerang Regency
surrounding the Cisadane River were vulnerable to flooding after continuous
rainfall (The Jakarta Post, October 5, 2010).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">The total
flooded areas and the severity of flooding in the peripheries of Jakarta is
still less than those in Jakarta. The severity of flooding in Jakarta is due to
the location of Jakarta; located in a lowland area with 43 lakes and 13 rivers.
Meanwhile, the peripheries of Jakarta are located in higher areas. The
tributaries and basin areas of all rivers in Jakarta are in the peripheries of
Jakarta. Thus Jakarta’s flooding is strongly related with the sustainability of
the Jakarta’s peripheries. In the last few decades, </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">industrial estates, large-scale subdivisions and new
towns</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> have proliferated in the peripheries of Jakarta, many of them converted
water catchment areas, green areas and wetlands. Such land conversions have led
to increased severity of flooding. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Former Jakarta Governor, Sutiyoso, blamed deforestation
and overbuilding in the peripheries of Jakarta which were supposed to be water
catchment/flood plain areas as the reasons for the disasters (Jakarta Post, 3
February 2007).<span style="background: white;"> </span>This conversion of water
catchment areas into urban zones in peripheral areas is clearly one of the contributing
factors to the land subsidence, exacerbated by decreasing water catchment areas
both in Jakarta and the outskirts of Jakarta. This reduces the volume of water
that cann be absorbed in the ground to recharge the groundwater. The mismatch
between the intensive groundwater withdrawal and recharge of groundwater also
adds significantly to land subsidence and needs to </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">be prevented. Water catchment areas should be protected toallow
more water to sink into the ground and replenish the groundwater. Reducing the
use of groundwater and protecting water catchment areas will also decelerate land
subsidence and increase the sustainability of Jakarta</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">.</span><br />
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></i>
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Traffic congestion</span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Jakarta is estimated to lose US$3 billion a year because of traffic
congestion which</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> can’t be separated from the high
growth rate of vehicle ownership (9 to 11 percent per year), unsupported by
road development (less than 1 percent a year). </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Motorcycles are ubiquitous and can be acquired with a down payment of as
little as $30. P</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">eople
who live in the outskirts of Jakarta can save as much as 30% of their
transportation costs using motorcycles to work rather than public transport. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">The daily jams in Jakarta are getting worse; the
peripheries are a “bedroom suburb” for the daily commuters of Jakarta, the center
of government and corporate offices, commercial and entertainment enterprises.
The economy of Jakarta dominates its peripheral areas. In the daytime, the
total population in Jakarta is much more than its population in the nighttime;
the number of daily commuters in Jakarta is estimated 5.4 million (Suara
Pembaruan, March 9, 2011).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvG_5qVVeWcYRC2bRMgd5sPW6TpkYjZ_FfbJIYcnLFgJlvYYbIz3wCmcLbtgh9bzvlRb4ff86RzsxiWnIZk-0Nm8mwngnssxNpKmrl4f3iux87w_eZ1LTAt90gsiE2Vgx-vRGoUxlhu8Y/s1600/Traffic+Mampang+2014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvG_5qVVeWcYRC2bRMgd5sPW6TpkYjZ_FfbJIYcnLFgJlvYYbIz3wCmcLbtgh9bzvlRb4ff86RzsxiWnIZk-0Nm8mwngnssxNpKmrl4f3iux87w_eZ1LTAt90gsiE2Vgx-vRGoUxlhu8Y/s1600/Traffic+Mampang+2014.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mampang Prapatan, South Jakarta. January 2014</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">C</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">ommuters from the peripheries
primarily used three highways including the Jagorawi toll road connecting
Jakarta and the southern peripheries, the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road connecting
Jakarta and the eastern peripheries and the Jakarta-Merak toll road connecting
Jakarta and the western peripheries. Most commuters go to Jakarta to work in
government and corporate offices, study in universities, receive high quality
medical attention in the hospitals, and/or go for entertainment and cultural
activities. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">T</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">he acute traffic congestion has also prompted
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono to revisit the idea of the <i>capital relocation</i> out of Jakarta.
Relocating the capital out of Jakarta could reduce urbanization and the rate of
car ownership in Jakarta and its surrounding areas, but it will not completely
address the traffic congestion in Jakarta. The current public transportation
systems have not been able to alleviate the acute traffic congestion; it is
likely that Jakarta needs a Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) or also popularly known as
Metro, in order to address this problem.
Jakarta is the largest city in the world without a ‘metro’.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">Most metropolitan areas
in the world with the population of over 10 million have operated metros for
years. New York City opened the first underground line of its subway in 1904
and since then the subway has been the backbone of New York City transportation
system. Two major cities in Japan, Tokyo and Osaka built their metros in 1927
and 1933 respectively. The Tokyo Metro is the world’s most extensive rapid
transit system with more than eight million passengers daily. The second
largest city in the world, Mexico City, has had a metro since 1969 and now the
Mexico City Metro is the second largest metro system in North America after the
New York City subway. Two major cities in China, Beijing and Shanghai opened
their metro systems in 1971 and 1995 respectively. Major cities in Southeast
Asia with smaller populations than Jakarta have also had their metro systems
for years, including Manila (1984), Singapore (1987), Kuala Lumpur (1995) and
Bangkok (2004).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">However the new roads will only
undermine the efforts to develop a mass transportation system in Jakarta. The
development of new roads can never catch up to the growth rate of vehicle
ownership. A new highway or a widened road only alleviates traffic congestion
for a short period of time. After a few years, any new or widened highway fills
with traffic that would not have existed if the highway had not been built, a
phenomenon called </span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">induced demand.</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">
Because of induced demand, neither building new roads nor widening existing
roads are viable long-term solutions to traffic congestion.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">The main idea behind developing a mass
transportation system, including the TransJakarta busway and the monorail and
Mass Rapid Transit projects, is to reduce the number of motorists and motorcyclists
on Jakarta’s streets. Drivers would be expected to use the mass transportation
and reduce traffic, whereas new roads only attract more motorists. Not only
would elevated roads stimulate</span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> induced
demand</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> and thus worsen traffic congestion, they could also jeopardize the
livability of neighborhoods along them.</span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Planning
Efforts to Address Urban Problems in the Megacity of Jakarta</span></span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Clearly managing the
megacity of Jakarta with a total area of 5,897 square kilometers and more than
28 million people has been a very challenging task. The megacity covers three
provincial governments including the Jakarta Special Capital Region, West Java
and Banten. Urban development in the Megacity of Jakarta is under the control
and direction of the central government (Firman, 2008).</span><br />
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></i>
<i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Cooperating Body of Jabodetabek
Development</span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">In 1975, the Provincial
Government of West Java and the Jakarta Special Capital Region established the
BKSP (Cooperating Body of Jabodetabek Development) to coordinate plan,
implement and monitor development in the megacity of Jakarta. The establishment
of BKSP was reinforced by Decree No. 125 </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">- Minister of National Planning - in 1984
(Firman 2008); the BKSP has become theforum of coordination among three
provincial governments. However, the BKSP does not have any authority over the
developments in the megacity of Jakarta. The authority lies with each
provincial and local government in the area. The BKSP is powerless and
ineffective in coordinating development programs in the megacity of Jakarta. Programs
of regional transportation and flooding mitigation will require a solid
coordination among all provincial and local governments. It is clearly a major
challenge to address the urban problems </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">if the role of the BKSP is weak in
coordinating the programs. Firman (2008) argued that establishing a single
authority for the megacity of Jakarta would not be possible due to the strong
political tensions among provincial governments.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<img height="1" src="https://ho.lazada.co.id/aff_i?offer_id=2236&file_id=43606&aff_id=68255" width="1" /><i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></i><i style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Transportation Projects</span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">In order to address
traffic congestion, two flagship projects are underway including the
development of Cilamaya Seaport and the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) project. The
Cilamaya Seaport is located outside of the Jabodetabek, but is connected with
the Jakarta-Cikampek toll road. This planned seaport is located in Karawang
Regency. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">All shipping activities of
industrial parks in the megacity are currently using the Tanjung Priok port in
Jakarta. The Cilamaya Seaport is designed to mitigate further traffic
congestion caused by heavy traffic flowing from the eastern parts of the
megacity to the Tanjung Priok port. This will be a new transportation hub for the
megacity’s industrial parks. The MRT project would become the most expensive
public projects in Jakarta’s history, but it is the answer to address acute
traffic congestions in Jakarta.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">For at least 20 years,
the proposed MRT has been under discussion by the Jakarta administration and the
government of Indonesia. Activists and non-governmental watchdogs have seen the
MRT proposal as a possible bonanza for corrupt politicians and contractors
(Economist, 4 February 2010). Eventually, the government secured a $1.6 billion
loan agreement with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in
2009 for funding. Vice President Boediono also asked the JICA to expedite the
design and construction of MRT project; the first tract of the MRT project was
to be completed in 2016 (The Jakarta Post, 20 October 2010). The construction
of the MRT project began on October 10, 2013. Governor Joko Widodo launched the
flagship project in a groundbreaking ceremony at Dukuh Atas, Central Jakarta
(The Jakarta Globe, October 11, 2013).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%;">One MRT train will
consist of six cars and be able to transport a maximum of 1,200 passengers per
trip. The MRT Jakarta will operate 16 trains and transport 1.5 million
passengers a day. The first MRT tract will connect Lebak Bulus, South Jakarta
and the Hotel Indonesia traffic circle with six underground stations, seven
elevated stations and a capacity of 173,000 passengers per day (The Jakarta
Globe, October 11, 2013).</span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Lessons from
the Megacity of Jakarta</span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">Let us
allow oursleves a summary. The megacity of Jakarta is home to 28 million
people. Nearly two-thirds of the population live in the peripheral areas, still
highly dependent on the center of the megacity. They commute to the center for
most of their needs including jobs, schools, medical, entertainments, etc. The
main infrastructures that connect the center and the peripheries are three
highways including </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">the Jagorawi, the Jakarta-Cikampek and the Jakarta-Merak toll
roads. There are very limited public
transportation infrastructures connecting the peripheral areas and the center
of the megacity of Jakarta. For years, traffic congestion has become a chronic
urban problem. Unless there are a <span style="background: white; color: #333333;">reliable, accessible, and affordable public transportation modes that
connect the center and peripheral areas of the megacity of Jakarta</span>, the traffic congestions in the megacity of
Jakarta will not be resolved.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Jakarta
lies in a lowland area with 13 rivers. All tributaries and basin areas of these
13 rivers are located in the peripheries of the megacity,</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> strongly associated with the floods in Jakarta. I</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">ndustrial parks and new towns</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> were built in the peripheries of Jakarta and many of them have
converted water catchment areas, green areas and wetlands. Such land
conversions have affected the severity of flooding in Jakarta. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Annual flooding
in Jakarta is strong evidence that rapid urbanization in Jakarta must be
reduced. As long as Jakarta remains the primary growth machine of the nation,
the economic growth of Jakarta will be strongly associated with the pace of
Indonesia's economic growth, and will correspond to rapid urbanization in
Jakarta. In addition, rapid urbanization in Jakarta was generated by an influx
of migrants from other parts of the nation, particularly from poor regions of
Java Island. During 1995-2005 the average number of people who migrated to the
peripheral areas of Jakarta was 1.6 million people per year. Poverty in rural
areas of Java became a factor that pushed people from rural areas to urban
ones. There is an inextricable link between the rapid urbanization in Jakarta
and poverty in Java's rural areas. Alleviating rural poverty in Java will
address not only the problems of the rural poor, but also reduce the pressures
in and on Jakarta and its peripheries.</span><br />
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></b>
<b style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
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<b style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></b>
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-72798185319997822092013-12-05T12:36:00.003-05:002017-05-03T15:35:35.121-05:00Building urban resilience<span style="font-family: inherit;">Resilience has rapidly
become a popular term in many disciplines including the discipline of urban
planning. In the last few years, the concept of resilience is increasingly used
in urban policy and strategies. Resilience appears to be fast replacing
sustainability. The concept of sustainability has been at the forefront of
urban policy discourse since the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations
issued the concept of sustainable development in 1987.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Sustainability aims
to minimize our impact on the environment, but has one small flaw.
Sustainability puts the environment back into balance, but the way the
environment behaves is difficult to predict. We are living in the environment
with a heightened sense of uncertainty and unpredictability. There are many
environmental events that are out of our control and we need to survive when
the environment attacks us.</span><br />
<br />
<div class="flickr-frame">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/docbudie/3641080920/" title="photo sharing"><img alt="" class="flickr-photo" src="https://farm4.staticflickr.com/3584/3641080920_de3c85aef5.jpg"></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span class="flickr-caption"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/docbudie/3641080920/">Heart of Jakarta</a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/docbudie/">Sayid Budhi</a>.</span></div>
</div>
<div class="flickr-yourcomment">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Many scholars refer
to C.S. Holling who coined resilience in his 1973 seminal paper on systems
ecology. The word resilience stems from resilire, Latin for bounce. The
Rockefeller Foundation commissioned a team to develop a comprehensive
literature review of resilience and released the report in September 2011. The
review focuses on three resilience frameworks including resilience for an
object, a system and an adaptive system. <br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Resilience for an
object is bouncing back faster after stress, enduring greater stresses, and
being disturbed less by a given amount of stress. Resilience for a system is
maintaining system function in the event of a disturbance. Meanwhile,
resilience for an adaptive system is the ability to withstand, recover from,
and reorganize in response to crisis </span><a href="http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/resilience-literature-review" style="font-family: inherit;" target="_blank">(Martin-Breen and Anderies 2011)</a><span style="font-family: inherit;">.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">How about urban
resilience? I define urban resilience as the ability of urban communities to
recover from </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">disasters and
disturbances in a sustainable way, maintain a good quality of life and increase
its coping capacity to reduce the damages from an unpredictable disaster or disturbance.
Resilient urban communities are better prepared for uncertainties and able to
adapt to changing conditions.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">The
World Economic Forum released its </span><a href="http://reports.weforum.org/global-risks-2013/" style="font-family: inherit;" target="_blank">2013 Global Risks Report</a><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;"> and included a
section of resilience in the report. It is the first Global Risk Report of
World Economic Forum that discusses the global risks from the resilience
perspective. The report identifies five components of national resilience and I
believe these five components are applicable for the urban context.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">The
components of urban resilience include robustness, redundancy, resourcefulness,
response and recovery. Robustness refers to the ability to absorb and withstand
disaster and disturbance. Redundancy is the excess capacity to enable the
maintenance of core function in the event of disasters and disturbances.
Resourcefulness involves the ability to adapt and respond flexibility to
disaster and disturbances and transform a negative impact into a positive one.
Response means the ability to mobilize quickly in the face of disturbance.
Recovery is the ability to regain normality after a disaster or disturbance.
Building urban resilience refers the development of these five components in
the urban system including buildings, infrastructures and communities. </span><br />
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">There
are two modes to build resilient urban communities including mitigation mode
and adaption mode. Mitigation mode refers the intervention that is aimed to
reduce the long term risk and hazards and also avoid unmanageable impacts of
disasters or disturbances. Adaption mode involves the adjustment that is aimed
to moderate damages in the event of disasters or disturbances or exploit
beneficial opportunities and also manage unavoidable impacts of disaster or
disturbances. Building urban resilience is not a short term program. It’s a
long term program and requires coordination among stakeholders in the city
including government agencies, private companies, and residents to prepare for,
withstand and recover stronger from disaster, disruptions and chronic stresses.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">In
May 2013, the Rockefeller Foundation announced the Centennial Challenge of 100
Resilient Cities. The Rockefeller Foundation received nearly 400 applications
from cities around the world including thousand-year-old cities to megacities
dealing with rapid urbanization. </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">A panel
of judges including former President Bill Clinton and Nigerian President
Olusegun Obasanjo reviewed the applications particularly on how the cities are
approaching and planning for resilience and their commitment to building
resilient city.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">On
December 3, 2013, the panel selected the first set of 33 cities for the Rockefeller
Foundation’s 100 Resilient Network.</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">The
33 selected cities include Semarang, Melbourne, New York City, San Francisco,
Los Angeles, New Orleans, Ramalah, Rotterdam, Rome, Rio de Jainero, Mexico City
and Dakar. The full list of the 33 selected cities can be found at </span><a href="http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/33-resilient-cities-announced-by" style="font-family: inherit;" target="_blank">this link</a><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">. These cities have implemented innovative programs and demonstrated
positive results for resilience.</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">For
example, New Orleans had experienced in dealing with and rebounding from
Hurricane Katrina and Isaac and the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and learned
important lessons about being a resilient city. Similarly, New York City has
learned valuable lessons from Hurricane Sandy and developed programs to protect
its residents from coastal flooding and sea level rise that could lead to
replicable models for other coastal cities.</span><br />
<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #222222; font-family: inherit;">Innovative
programs of increasing resilience and lessons learned in recovering from
disasters and catastrophes from those selected cities should be introduced to
other cities for possible replication including to Indonesian cities. Jakarta
and other Indonesian cities should prepare for possible catastrophic or
disruptions and should develop systems to recover stronger from catastrophic or
disruptions. Semarang was selected because it has innovative programs to
address flush floods and tidal flooding including rainwater harvesting, vetiver
grass plantation, mangrove rehabilitation and early warning system for floods
and vector-borne diseases. Other Indonesian cities should learn from Semarang
and other selected cities and have systems in place to recover, persist or even
thrive amid disruptions.</span><br />
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(This article also appeared at <a href="http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/12/21/building-urban-resilience.html" target="new">The Jakarta Post </a>on December 21, 2013)<br />
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<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2013/12/building-urban-resilience-case-of.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-43698805938924009842013-05-07T14:12:00.001-05:002017-05-03T15:35:59.590-05:00Jakarta annual flooding in January 2013<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">This post was aimed to document the flood that inundated Jakarta in January 2013. Many parts of Jakarta were inundated following heavy rain on January 16, 2013. The floods killed <span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">at least 20 people and sent at least 33,502 fleeing their houses as reported by t</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 19px;">he National Disaster Mitigation Agency (BNPB) (The Jakarta Globe, January 22, 2013). </span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 19px;">The floods also inundated the face of the capital of Indonesia - the Round of Hotel Indonesia and the Merdeka presidential palace. This was the first time that both areas were inundated by the annual Jakarta floods. These areas were not inundated in the previous floods. These areas were inundated because the dike of Ciliwung River under the flyover of Latuharhary collapsed. </span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHmeZ93qX0XihVfX8_Z4LPimnQeg7agSa2i2nn6e-5WbCXFaLqm2r6S8hXMwE6XT3LF2dQv4DICb7ChxGwRNXMqLu40viyTF5PXoKQnOJO_AhxkEuDkZQxQ57JaLYeyJ6SaBzASHJe5r8/s1600/Flooded+HI+Round+Jan+2013.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHmeZ93qX0XihVfX8_Z4LPimnQeg7agSa2i2nn6e-5WbCXFaLqm2r6S8hXMwE6XT3LF2dQv4DICb7ChxGwRNXMqLu40viyTF5PXoKQnOJO_AhxkEuDkZQxQ57JaLYeyJ6SaBzASHJe5r8/s400/Flooded+HI+Round+Jan+2013.jpg" width="400"></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;">Source: The Facebook page of the Jakarta Globe, accessed on May 7, 2013</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 19px;">Many mass media around the world reported the Jakarta's flood in January 2013 and used the above photo of the inundated Round of Hotel Indonesia. Following the massive flooding, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; line-height: 19px;">Jakarta Governor Joko Widodo placed the entire </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; line-height: 19px;">capital under emergency status </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 19px;">until January 27, 2013. </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 19px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 19px;">The Merdeka presidential palace was also inundated and President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono delayed his state meeting with the </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18px;">Visiting Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner due to the flooding. The below photo shows President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and the Secretary of State Marty Natalegawa inspected the inundated Merdeka Presidential Palace on January 16, 2013.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Following the floods, there were a number of proposals to prevent and mitigate the floods in Jakarta including the development of deep tunnel and the removal of illegal buildings in the watershed areas of Puncak in Bogor, West Java.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The proposal of deep tunnel was proposed by Governor Joko Widodo that can also be used to address the traffic congestion in Jakarta. The proposed tunnel was estimated to cost Rp 16 trillion and will run 22 kilometers at a depth of 40 meters. The tunnel will consist of three channels including two upper channels for traffic and the lowest one for channeling away rainwater runoff and carrying utility piping. The drainage channel will empty out into Jakarta Bay. Planned entry and exit points for vehicles will be located in the Gatot Subroto area to accommodate traffic coming from the Warung Buncit and Mampang areas, as well as Tomang and Slipi Jaya (The Jakarta Globe, March 18, 2013). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small;">The proposal of demolishing illegal buildings in the watershed areas of Puncak was played down by the Minister of Forestry Zulkifli Hasan. Minister Hasan argued that there are about 40,000 households living there and it's not easy to evict them. He said it would take a lengthy process of discussions and awareness campaigns to get the residents to relocate. The Jakarta Globe reported that the initial zoning allowed for development in the Halimun-Salak area of Puncak was 40,000 hectares, but 130,000 hectares have now been paved over and developed, reducing the ground’s ability to absorb rainwater runoff and increasing the amount of water flowing downstream to Jakarta (The Jakarta Globe, March 6, 2013).</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijl0c4GX0_OELqhTfJCkhSBk2OC109BzUYBEVxtr0ExpJcrqbwVkSP07r_1pXK4CNk_zisynUXDeEDhq6En1oPfKnmcdXRxBmpbSrSOViqaLwu6MUJpZL9wJWvx1_XBY1vst396_cfsk8/s1600/Flooded+Istana+16+Jan+2013.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijl0c4GX0_OELqhTfJCkhSBk2OC109BzUYBEVxtr0ExpJcrqbwVkSP07r_1pXK4CNk_zisynUXDeEDhq6En1oPfKnmcdXRxBmpbSrSOViqaLwu6MUJpZL9wJWvx1_XBY1vst396_cfsk8/s400/Flooded+Istana+16+Jan+2013.jpg" width="400"></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: left;">Source: The Facebook page of the Jakarta Globe, accessed on May 7, 2013</span><br />
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<script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br />
<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2013/05/jakarta-annual-flooding-in-january-2013.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-58862589582154335752012-11-20T13:58:00.002-05:002017-05-03T15:36:09.456-05:00Jakarta's Perennial Flooding Woes in 2012The Jakarta Globe reported on <a href="http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/news/three-feared-dead-as-floods-threaten-jakarta/556925">November 19, 2012</a> that surging waters following torrential rains in Jakarta killed at least one person. The floods caused structural damage to some buildings, crippled traffic and inundated many parts of Jakarta. Floods have become a threat and brought woes for Jakarta residents every year.<br />
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<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/rpt/2187996705/" title="photo sharing"><img alt="" class="flickr-photo" src="https://farm3.static.flickr.com/2006/2187996705_55d8dc8a5f.jpg"></a><br />
<span class="flickr-caption"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/rpt/2187996705/">Canal - Jakarta</a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/people/rpt/">pyjama</a>.</span> </div>
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In 2007, the worst floods in memory inundated about 70 percent of Jakarta, killed at least 57 people and sent about 450,000 fleeing their houses. In 2008, floods inundated most parts of Jakarta including the Sedyatmo toll road and nearly 1,000 flights in the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport were delayed or diverted and 259 were cancelled. Earlier this year, floods inundated hundreds of homes along major Jakarta waterways including the Ciliwung, Pesanggrahan, Angke and Krukut rivers and displaced 2,430 people (The Jakarta Globe, April 5, 2012). <br />
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In the aftermath of these annual floods, the government usually focuses on releasing floodwater as quickly as possible into the sea, particularly on the development of the East Flood Canal and dredging of rivers. Similarly, Governor Joko Widodo laid out his plan to improve the East Flood Canal, the drainage in Cengkareng and Pesanggrahan and develop a reservoir for reducing the flow of the Ciliwung River (The Jakarta Globe, November 19, 2012).<br />
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The East Flood Canal was launched in the aftermath of major floods in 2002 and reached the sea on December 31, 2009 after a very slowly progress due to the complicated land acquisitions. The East Flood Canal has been considered the most feasible means to prevent future flooding in Jakarta, but clearly cannot prevent flooding entirely. The canal, coupled with the dredging of rivers, is only able to mitigate impacts of flooding. <br />
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Averting floods in Jakarta is quite a big challenge since Jakarta lies in a lowland area with 43 lakes and 13 rivers with a population of nearly 10 million within the city's boundaries and more than four million in neighboring areas. Two centuries ago, the Dutch colonial government, with its long experience in controlling water and drainage systems, built a canal system to protect the city's population which was then 500,000.<br />
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The annual floods in Jakarta are strong evidence that Jakarta has not been able to sustainably accommodate its growth. Jakarta needs bold moves to prevent future flooding. For many years, new homes, commercials and office buildings have proliferated across the city and many of them have converted water catchment areas, green areas and wetlands. Land conversions from water catchment areas, green areas and wetland to urbanized areas in Jakarta and its neighboring areas must be stopped. <br />
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<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/omae/2700330115/" title="photo sharing"><img alt="" class="flickr-photo" src="https://farm4.static.flickr.com/3164/2700330115_228be0f28d.jpg"></a><br />
<span class="flickr-caption"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/omae/2700330115/">neighborhood.</a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/people/omae/">omae</a>.</span> </div>
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The city administration should promote the concept of infill development within urbanized areas. Sprawl development or outward expansion of development should be discouraged. New developments in Jakarta should be directed to vacant, underdeveloped or underutilized sites rather than undeveloped land including water catchment areas, green areas and wetland. Zoning regulations (Peraturan Zonasi) should encourage the application of infill development in vacant, underdeveloped or underutilized sites. Zoning regulations that limit building heights could become regulatory barriers for infill development. <br />
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The city administration also needs to take bold moves to expand the green areas in the city. In the 1970s, green areas made up between 40 and 50 percent of Jakarta and have been shrinking ever since. Currently, green areas in Jakarta account for less than 10 percent of the city’s total area, far below the target of 30 percent set in the 2007 Spatial Planning Law. Water catchment areas, green areas and wetlands that have been converted into urbanized areas need to be re-functionalized as non-urbanized areas. The cost of converting urbanized areas into green areas may be expensive, but such sacrifices are necessary for the future of Jakarta, including to avert floods.
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<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2012/11/jakartas-perennial-flooding-woes-in-2012.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-32315935329766996112012-10-11T13:28:00.000-05:002017-05-09T07:15:23.347-05:00New Transportation in Jakarta: What to Expect from Governor JokowiThe official result of Jakarta's gubernatorial election has been announced by the Jakarta General Elections Commission (KPU Jakarta) on September 29, 2012. The KPU Jakarta declared that Joko Widodo, popularly known as Jokowi, and his running mate Basuki Purnama Tjahaja, better known as Ahok won the election with 2,472,130 votes or 53.82% of the total votes. Jokowi and Ahok will be inaugurated as the new Jakarta Governor and Vice Governor on October 15, 2012. Jokowi will lead Jakarta in the next five years to build his vision of a "New Jakarta". What can we expect from his leadership about "New Jakarta" particularly on transportation?<br />
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In reference to what Jokowi has said during his campaigning, we should expect a new and better approach in addressing many acute urban problems in Jakarta including traffic congestion, floods, slums areas, and street vending. I commend the mindset of Jokowi in addressing the most acute urban problem of Jakarta-- traffic congestion. He understands that the correct way of addressing traffic congestion is not building more roads, but developing mass transportation. He said during his campaign that "Move People, Not Cars" was the solution for the Jakarta's traffic congestion.<br />
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Jokowi made pledges to expand the routes and the modes of Transjakarta Busway. He observed that the current mode of Transjakarta could only carry 40 passengers and caused a long delay during peak hours. He suggested that buses be replaced by rail-buses which can carry 300-400 passengers. He promised to continue the development of monorail and expedite the development of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) or also popularly known as Metro. He would also encourage the use of private cars by imposing electronic road pricing (ERP) and increasing parking fees.<br />
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Unlike the Governor Bowo administration, Jokowi openly opposes the development of six elevated toll roads in Jakarta. He argued that the development of elevated toll roads would not disentangle Jakarta's chronic traffic snarls. The development of elevated toll roads will promote the uses of private cars and make the acute Jakarta's traffic congestion even worse. He argued that the budget of 40 trillion rupiahs could be used to develop a more integrated, accessible and affordable mass transportation system in Jakarta.<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">In addition, Jokowi proposed low-income apartments in and surrounding commercial areas. He would like to develop integrated residential areas (permukiman terpadu) in which workers of commercial areas will live and commute every day to their workplaces </span>in very short distances. Such residential areas will significantly reduce the commuting trips generated by employees in Jakarta.<br />
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<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/romano69/3764484816/" title="Jakarta by Romano Lindhout, on Flickr"><img alt="Jakarta" height="333" src="https://farm3.staticflickr.com/2435/3764484816_0f261237a9.jpg" width="500"></a><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">It is clear that Jokowi understands the roots of Jakarta's chronic traffic congestion. He will promote the mass transportation system and discourage the uses of private cars. His campaign slogan of "Move People, Not Cars" is the mindset that Jakarta residents need to follow for addressing the acute Jakarta's traffic congestion. </span><br />
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I would also encourage Jakarta residents to implement as many ways as possible to alleviate traffic congestion including shuttle services, carpool matching services, and telecommuting. Jakarta residents should encourage their employers to expand their shuttle services and develop carpool matching services for their employees.Telecommuting is another way to reduce commuting by using telecommunication technologies. Employees can work outside the traditional office at remote work locations including their homes. A study in the US showed that telecommuting can reduce commuting by 10.4 percent of the labor force (Cullingworth and Caves 2009).<br />
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Making plans is simple, but implementing and executing plans require a lot of efforts and cooperation from all stakeholders. We have good plans to address the Jakarta traffic jams and Governor Jokowi will lead the efforts to implement and execute the plans. All plans of addressing the Jakarta traffic jams will succeed only if Jakarta residents support them. Without the support from Jakarta residents, all excellent plans will become useless.</span></span><br />
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(This article also appeared at <a href="http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/opinion/what-will-jokowi-do-about-traffic/550839" target="new">The Jakarta Globe </a>on October 18, 2012)<br />
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<!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like action="like" font="" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2012/10/new-jakarta-what-to-expect-from.html" send="true" show_faces="true" width="450"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-1765337354762585232012-02-09T10:20:00.019-05:002017-05-09T09:50:18.148-05:00New Elevated Roads will not Ease Jakarta's Traffic Woes<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 100%;">On February 6, 2012, </span><a href="http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/jakarta/will-elevated-roads-ease-jakartas-traffic-jams/496038" style="font-size: 100%;">Jakarta Globe </a><span style="font-size: 100%;">reported the ongoing construction work of two elevated roads: 5.5 kilometers Antasari-Blok M and 2.3 kilometers Casablanca-Sudirman. The city officials said the works were set to be completed by August 2012 and expected to ease traffic density in the area by half. Will elevated roads eas Jakarta’s traffic woes?</span></div>
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The traffic congestion in Jakarta can't be separated from the high growth rate of vehicle ownership -- 236 cars and 891 motorcycles per day or about 10 percent per year -- which is not supported by the growth of road development, which is only less than 1 percent per year. The development of new roads will never meet the high growth rate of vehicle ownership. A new highway or a widened road only alleviates traffic congestion for a short period of time. After a few years, any new highway fills with traffic that would not have existed if the highway had not been built. Similarly, any widened road fills with more traffic in just a few months. Such a phenomenon is called induced demand. Because of induced demand, neither building new roads nor widening roads are viable long-term solutions to traffic congestion.<br />
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The new roads will also undermine the efforts of developing the mass transportation system in Jakarta. The main idea of developing the mass transportation system including busway, monorail, and the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) projects in reducing the traffic congestion is to reduce the number of car riders and motorcyclists in the Jakarta’s streets. The car riders and motorcyclists are expected to use the mass transportation modes and reduce the burden of the Jakarta’s streets. The new roads will attract car riders back to the Jakarta’s streets.<br />
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Not only will the elevated roads cause the induced demand and worsen traffic congestion, but also could jeopardize the livability of neighborhoods along the elevated road. In many cities in other countries, such as Seoul, New Orleans, San Francisco and New York City, the elevated freeways caused the declining livability of neighborhoods along the elevated freeways. In many developed countries, we have seen the shift in urban planning from enhancing mobility toward promoting livability.<br />
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<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/romano69/3764484816/" title="Jakarta by Romano Lindhout, on Flickr"><img alt="Jakarta" height="333" src="https://farm3.staticflickr.com/2435/3764484816_0f261237a9.jpg" width="500"></a><br />
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<span style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">You can read the story of the Chonggyecheon freeway in Seoul, the New York City’s West Side elevated highway, two elevated freeways in San Francisco-- Embarcadero and Central Freeways and the New Orleans elevated expressway in </span><a href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2010/08/six-elevated-toll-roads-should-be.html" style="font-size: 100%;">the previous post</a><span style="font-size: 100%;">. Learning from those stories, it is clear that the elevated roads is not the solution for the traffic congestion in Jakarta, and also they could cause the decline of livability of neighborhoods along the elevated roads.</span></span></div>
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In order to alleviate transportation problems in Jakarta, the city administration should focus their efforts on the completion of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT). Jakarta is the largest city in the world without a metro or MRT. Major cities in Southeast Asia which have fewer population than Jakarta have had their metro systems for years, including Manila (1984), Singapore (1987), Kuala Lumpur (1995) and Bangkok (2004). The MRT would become the most expensive public projects in Jakarta’s history, but it is the answer to ease the Jakarta’s traffic jams. The critical key for the Jakarta's success in overcoming the traffic congestion is the conversion of car riders and motorcyclists into public transport riders/MRT riders rather than the development of new elevated roads.<br />
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(This article also appeared at <a href="http://jakartaglobe.id/archive/elevated-roads-not-the-way-to-go-in-jakarta/" target="new">The Jakarta Globe </a>on February 14, 2012)<br />
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Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-73864795610985776822011-08-10T15:26:00.022-05:002017-05-03T15:36:46.218-05:00Book review: The Appearances of Memory by Abidin KusnoOn May 26, 2010, I received an email from the editor of <a href="http://pacificaffairs.ubc.ca/">Pacific Affairs </a>who invited me to review a new book titled The Appearances of Memory: Mnemonic Practices of Architecture and Urban Form in Indonesia. It's my pleasure to accept the invitation and about a week later I received the book and started reading it. While I was preparing the review of the book, I received similar email from the reviews editor of Planning Theory and I respectfully declined the invitation because I had agreed to review the book for Pacific Affairs.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhMg4n_-w3vDTXYR2cg41HXaFPN9uXNBdJr-WjIi9-grsyUyMEUvT62j9eIRLeC8dzmFwuqmuWTMZ1bYyilRzJDHHKs9NzcTdxdSFKWN3YBzd9BGAZHFBNgDP_oTV0Av0iARLQjC2WOr8/s1600/the+appearances+of+memory.jpg"><img style="TEXT-ALIGN: center; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; DISPLAY: block; HEIGHT: 400px; CURSOR: hand" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5640539335945643010" border="0" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhMg4n_-w3vDTXYR2cg41HXaFPN9uXNBdJr-WjIi9-grsyUyMEUvT62j9eIRLeC8dzmFwuqmuWTMZ1bYyilRzJDHHKs9NzcTdxdSFKWN3YBzd9BGAZHFBNgDP_oTV0Av0iARLQjC2WOr8/s400/the+appearances+of+memory.jpg"></a>The book was written by Professor Abidin Kusno, an Associate Professor at the Institute of Asian Research and the Canada Research Chair in Asian Urbanism and Culture at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada.<br /><br />The review of The Appearances of Memory: Mnemonic Practices of Architecture and Urban Form in Indonesia has been published in Pacific Affairs 84(2): 399-401 in June 2011. I am pleased to share my review of this book in this blog as you can find below.<br /><br /><div><br /><br /><blockquote>Indonesia, with a population of over 230 million making it the fourth-largest country in the world, has been experiencing rapid urbanization in the last two decades. This in turn has led to problems in various aspects of urban life in Indonesia, exacerbated by the economic crisis in 1997. The resignation of President Suharto in May 1998, following his failure to address the impact of the economic crisis, marked the end of his New Order regime and the beginning of profound social and political transformation in Indonesia, including its cities. The changes in the cities cannot be separated from the history of the country, which underwent a period of colonialism, a period of revolutionary struggle for independence, a period of authoritarian rule under Sukarno’s Guided Democracy and a thirty-two-year authoritarian period under Suharto’s New Order Regime.<br /><br />The Appearances of Memory: Mnemonic Practices of Architecture and Urban Form in Indonesia offers new perspectives and interesting analysis of political cultures and the experience of urbanism in Indonesia, providing the reader with a better understanding of the complexity of urban problems in the country. Kusno’s main thesis posits that there have been connections between the built environment and political consciousness in Indonesian cities in the colonial and national periods. The book is organized into four thematic sections: governmentality, remembering and forgetting, reminiscences and mental nebulae. The chapters in the book are organized from the everyday present in the 2000s to the events of the colonial period. Those who are familiar with Kusno’s work will not find much new material in this book. Six out of nine chapters in the book have appeared elsewhere, many of which have been widely cited.<br /><br />The book is a pleasure to read, stimulating and well conceived. A variety of figures in<br />the book also amply supplement the narrative. Kusno offers an intriguing analysis of urban issues in Indonesia from the combined disciplines of architecture, history and politics. Such analysis is unique and will contribute significantly to the literature of urban studies, not only in the Indonesian context but on a broader level. In this book, Kusno also coins such terms as nationalist urbanism (26), state modernism (94) and market modernism (94) which could apply to cities in other countries.<br /><br />I found a lot of compelling discussions in the book, particularly those on Jakarta’s visual environments including the busway project, superblocks, kampongs, the street vendors, the preservation of Old Batavia, and the redevelopment of Glodok after the May 1998 riot. Drawing from those visual environments, this book reveals how the visual environments are well connected with the anxieties over the sense of change at different historical moments in Jakarta. Kusno clearly demonstrates the interplay between collective memories and the changing realm of the visual environment in the city.<br /><br />Despite its many virtues, the book does not discuss the most important public visual environment in the city, particularly in Jakarta, which is green areas. As Jakarta’s population grows, its green areas shrink. The population in the city grew from 3.5 million in 1965 to more than 14 million in 2010, but in contrast the green areas have shrunk from 35 percent of Jakarta’s land area in 1965 to only 9.3 percent in 2009. New luxury homes, condominiums, shopping malls, hotels, commercial buildings and offices have proliferated over the last three decades. Many have been built at the expense of green areas. An analysis of the shrinking green areas in Jakarta would be a very compelling additional section to this book.<br /><br />The busway project is one of the innovative ways in which the Jakarta administration has addressed the transportation problems in the city. This book offers a cultural politics analysis of the busway project and demonstrates how it interacts with the<br />political culture of the Jakarta administration, but fails to analyze the effectiveness of this project in alleviating transportation problems. This book offers an in-depth analysis of mosques and gatehouses during the colonial and postcolonial eras, but does not provide further discussion of Indonesian traditional piazzas (alun-alun) which are a unique component of Indonesian cities. A further analysis of alun-alun in both colonial and national periods would be an excellent additional section to this book.<br /><br />My other regret is the subtitle of this book. The cases in this book were drawn primarily from Jakarta and a few cities in Java. Indonesia is a large country with over 17,000 islands and 300 distinctive ethnic groups, and it should not be represented by only Jakarta and a few cities in the island out of nine chapters in the book have appeared elsewhere, many of which have been widely cited.<br /><br /><div id="fb-root"></div><br /><br /><script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br /><br /><?xml:namespace prefix = fb /><fb:like href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2011/08/book-review-appearances-of-memory-by.html" send="true" width="450" show_faces="true" action="like" font=""></fb:like></blockquote></div>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-15332786426763310432011-06-02T00:26:00.048-05:002017-05-03T15:37:19.583-05:00Promoting Bike Lanes in JakartaOn May 22, 2011, Jakarta set a new milestone towards a healthier and more livable city. The Jakarta administration inaugurated the first Jakarta’s dedicated bicycle lane stretching 1.5 kilometers from Ayodia Park to Blok M in South Jakarta. Jakarta is late in promoting bicycle lanes. Jakarta has focused in promoting the use of cars by building more elevated inner city toll roads and ignored the importance of non-motorist trips in the city.<br /><br /><p class="flickr-frame" align="center"><a title="photo sharing" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/chandramarsono/567186989/"><img class="flickr-photo" alt="" src="https://farm2.static.flickr.com/1067/567186989_b28331bf61.jpg"></a></p><p class="flickr-frame" align="center"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/chandramarsono/567186989/"><span style="font-size:78%;">Jakarta's Traffic This Morning</span></a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/chandramarsono/">Chandra Marsono</a>.</p><br /><br /><p class="flickr-frame" align="left">Many metropolitans in the world have developed dedicated bicycles lanes for years. Cities in developed countries, particularly in Europe, have integrated bicycle lanes into their transportation network systems. Those cities such as Amsterdam, Paris, Berlin, Copenhagen and Barcelona have been developed as bike-friendly cities. Safe and extensive bike route networks, promotion of pro-cyclist policies, and a bike culture have taken places in those cities. Cyclists in those cities are not second class residents and can safely ride their bicycles as the main mode for their daily commute to their workplaces. Copenhagen is an example of European bike-friendly city where about a third of workforce in this city commute to the office by bike.<br /><br />The inauguration of the first Jakarta’s dedicated bike lane stretching from Ayodia Park to Blok M should also be considered as a breakthrough in solutions for acute traffic congestions in Jakarta. The development of dedicated bicycle lanes is a good move from the Jakarta administration for promoting the use of bicycle as an alternative transportation mode. If the Jakarta city administration could encourage more motorists to shift to using bicycle to work, the city’s chronic traffic woes could be eventually reduced.<br /></p><br /><br /><p class="flickr-frame" align="center"><a title="photo sharing" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/16nine/2370064335/"><img class="flickr-photo" alt="" src="https://farm4.static.flickr.com/3174/2370064335_0e6e52f129.jpg"></a></p><p class="flickr-frame" align="center"><span class="flickr-caption"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/16nine/2370064335/"><span style="font-size:78%;">Bike Lane and Traffic Lights</span></a><span style="font-size:78%;">, originally uploaded by </span><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/16nine/"><span style="font-size:78%;">Mikael Colville-Andersen</span></a><span style="font-size:78%;">. </span></span><span style="font-size:78%;">Some Copenhageners on their way home in the afternoon, along the busiest boulevard in the capital, Hans Christian Andersen's Boulevard. Over 20,000 bikes a day on this stretch and this intersection is among the busiest in the kingdom. Notice the abundance of traffic lights, for extra safety. Cyclists here have three lights to look at. Helpful if you're stuck at the back of a queue of 50-75 bikes. You'll always be able to see one.</span></p>The first dedicated bike lane in Jakarta is only a small step in developing Jakarta as a bike-friendly city. There are many challenges for Jakarta to be a bike-friendly city. The Jakarta city administration needs to have a strong commitment to build more dedicated bike lanes and integrate them with the city transportation network system. Dedicated bike lanes should be part of the city transportation network system and designed to accommodate the need of residents’ mobility in the city. It is very essential to connect dedicated bike lanes with mass transportations including the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT).<br /><br />It’s not easy to build more dedicated bike lanes if the Jakarta city administration still focuses on building more elevated inner-city toll roads as the solution of addressing the chronic traffic woes in Jakarta. It is also important to note that the first dedicated bike lane was not initiated by the Jakarta city administration but the Indonesian Bicycle Community (<i>Komite Sepeda Indonesia</i>) that donated as much as 500 million rupiahs to build the bike lane. The Jakarta city administration needs to change the mindset of the possible solution for the chronic traffic congestion in the city. The solution is not building more roads, but reducing the use of cars through improving and expanding the use of mass transportations and bicycles.<br /><br />Another big challenge for bike lanes in Jakarta is the lack of law enforcement. The Jakarta city administration should strictly enforce the dedicated bike lanes for cyclists. The dedicated bike lane cannot be used as parking spots and a lane for motorcyclists. A few days after the inauguration of the bike lane stretching from Ayodia Park to Blok M, the lane was overwhelmed by private cars, pubic minivans and three-wheeled vehicles bajaj. A number of private cars were also parking in the lane (The Jakarta Post, 27 May 2011). Without strict law enforcement, the dedicated bike lane will not be an effective way to reduce the Jakarta’s traffic woes and will only be a failed initiative.<br /><br /><p class="flickr-frame" align="center"><a title="photo sharing" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/noggin_nogged/1469372940/"><img class="flickr-photo" alt="" src="https://farm2.static.flickr.com/1414/1469372940_6b008a8505.jpg"></a></p><p class="flickr-frame" align="center"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/noggin_nogged/1469372940/"><span style="font-size:78%;">Velib' bikes, Paris</span></a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/noggin_nogged/">the noggin_nogged</a>.</p>Despite the challenges for bike lanes in Jakarta, the inauguration of the Jakarta’s first bike lane should be seen as a promising way of alleviating the acute traffic problems in Jakarta. I hope that the inauguration of the Jakarta’s first bike lane could be the milestone for the Jakarta city administration in changing the mindset of how to address the chronic traffic problems in Jakarta. It is not building more toll roads but reducing the use of cars through encouraging more motorists to shift to cyclists or mass transportation riders.<br /><br />(This article was also reposted at <a href="http://berburu.org/2011/06/14/bike-lanes-jakarta/" target="new">Berburu Center</a> on June 14, 2011 and at <a href="http://thisbigcity.net/indonesias-biggest-city-gets-its-first-bicycle-lane/">This Big City</a> on October 17, 2011)<br /><div id="fb-root"></div><br /><script src="https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/all.js#appId=212719362101144&xfbml=1"></script><br /><!--?xml:namespace prefix = fb /--><fb:like width="450" href="http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2011/06/promoting-bike-lanes-in-jakarta.html" font="tahoma" show_faces="true" send="true"></fb:like>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3919046404255213140.post-49499283628489228022011-02-28T19:32:00.013-05:002017-05-19T12:05:22.831-05:00Jakarta Annual Flooding in February 2011Since I started this blog in January 2007, I have recorded all floods in Jakarta in this blog. Interestingly, the worst floods occured in Jakarta during the month of February when rainfall in Jakarta and other areas in Indonesia was at its highest and floods become a threat for residents.<br />
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<span style="text-align: center;">In February 2007, the flood inundated about 70 per cent of the Jakarta's area. It killed at least 57 people and sent about 450,000 fleeing their homes. The city's hospitals struggled with an influx of patients suffering from diarrhoea, dengue and severe respiratory problems. The flood paralysed the centre of Indonesia's economy for several days and businesses claimed to lose about US$1 billion.</span><br />
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In February 2008, 37 of 267 subdistricts in Jakarta were inundated by more than 40 centimeters of water. Floodwaters caused public transportation, including the busway lines across Jakarta, to stop operations, leaving thousands of passengers stranded. The flood also inundated the Sedyatmo toll road to Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, which resulted in the cutting off the highway for a few days. Nearly 1,000 flights were delayed or diverted and 259 flights were canceled.<br />
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In February 2009, the floods inundated many parts of Jakarta including sub-districts Bidara Cina, Kampung Melayu, Cawang, Bukit Duri, Angke, Petamburan, Tanjung Priok, Kelapa Gading, Koja, Cilincing, Rawa Badak, Kamal Muara, and Kapuk Muara. These areas were inundated by between 10 and 50 centimeters of water. Floodwaters also caused lengthy traffic jams in many main streets in Jakarta.<br />
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In February 2010, the floods inundated more areas than the previous year’s floods despite a lower level of rainfall. The flood in February 2010 also killed at least 2 people and displaced more than 1,700 in Kampung Melayu, Bukit Duri and Bidaracina areas from overflowing Ciliwung river.<br />
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In February 2011, the worst flood inundated Jakarta on February 15, 2011 that caused severe flooding in the neighborhood of Jl. Gunung Sahari and a 50-centimeter-deep flood that submerged the main road connecting Mangga Dua Square and the Ancol amusement park. The flooding also affected TransJakarta buses bound for Ancol (The Jakarta Post, February 16, 2011).<br />
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The East Flood Canal project has been completed and reached the sea on December 31, 2009. This massive project was considered as the most feasible solution for preventing future floods in Jakarta, but it clearly cannot prevent the flooding entirely. Neither dredging the canals and rivers nor building new canals is a sustainable solution for preventing future flooding in Jakarta. The annual floods are strong evidence that Jakarta cannot sustainably accommodate its rapid growth.<br />
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<span class="flickr-caption"><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/dedenrukmana/4329699094/">Jakarta's skyline </a>, originally uploaded by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/people/dedenrukmana/">Deden Rukmana</a>.</span></div>
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Interestingly and not surprisingly, many Jakarta's residents have been used to flooding and have made it as part of their daily life as you can find in the following story from The Jakarta Post on January 5, 2011:<br />
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Two children chased each other cheerfully, splashing about in polluted water flowing through a small alley in Muara Angke, Pluit, in North Jakarta, while their mother watched television in their home nearby. Their mother, Carini, in an effort to stop water from flooding their home, had deployed a few sacks of charcoal as a barrier. After all, she made no bones about the floodwaters that regularly inundate her home. She and her family members had already made peace with the floods, she told The Jakarta Post.<br />
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“We even use floodwater to wash our clothes if the water looks clean,” she said. Carini knows by heart what time the water will start rising.<br />
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“Every day the water rises at 8 a.m. until around 10 or 11 p.m,” she said, adding that the water could at times be ankle-high.<br />
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Before she decided to elevate her home’s floor last year, floodwaters had been as much as 1 meter high. Carini has been living in the fishing village of Muara Angke for the past 12 years, and insists she will remain there in spite of the perennial inundation. Her home is where their livelihood is as her husband is a fisherman who sets sail from the seaside village.<br />
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Muara Angke is one of 27 sites in North Jakarta that are prone to tidal flooding, including Penjaringan, Kapuk Muara, Tanjung Priok and Ancol. The frequent flooding occurs because the elevation of the fishing village is slightly lower than sea level. Compounding the problem is the mounds of garbage that block the passage of water in nearby streams. Sumri, a food vendor at the nearby Muara Angke traditional market, said the aqueduct that channels tidewater was clogged with garbage.<br />
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“[The flooding] has never subsided. The best we can hope for is ankle-high flooding,” she said. Sumri said although she and her family were used to the flooding, it could be very disruptive at times, especially during bathing hours.<br />
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“My toilet is in the back of the house, so I have to pass the water every time I go there,” she said.<br />
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Subandi, Sumri’s brother-in-law who also lives in the home together with his wife and son, said the toilet was 30 meters away.<br />
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“To avoid any skin problems we always wash our feet after returning from the toilet,” he said.<br />
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Sumri said living so close to water also forced them to spend more on water. She buys clean water once every two days. “We need it for drinking and cooking.”<br />
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Despite the persistent garbage, the authorities have done little. “I can’t remember the last time the aqueduct was cleaned. The last time it was cleaned was when the head of the neighborhood initiated a cleanup,” Subandi said.<br />
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“I don’t think the subdistrict administration wants to do a cleaning job,” he said, laughing.<br />
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The lack of initiative from the local government has prompted residents to deal with the flooding on their own. On Jl. Cumi, an alley next to the Pluit Port that is regularly flooded, residents built an embankment from debris they collected to stop tidal water from flowing into their neighborhood.</blockquote>
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The above story illustrates the responsiveness of the Jakarta's residents to flooding. They are the victims and also the "real solution" to the annual flooding in Jakarta. They are willing to sacrifice their life for finding the solution to the annual flooding. It's sad but this is what has been happening in Jakarta for years.<br />
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<iframe allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2011/02/jakarta-annual-flooding-in-february.html&layout=standard&show_faces=true&width=450&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light&height=80" style="border: none; height: 80px; overflow: hidden; width: 450px;"></iframe>Deden Rukmanahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16412394582630188952noreply@blogger.com2